Facial Communicative Signals

This paper investigates facial communicative signals (head gestures, eye gaze, and facial expressions) as nonverbal feedback in human-robot interaction. Motivated by a discussion of the literature, we suggest scenario-specific investigations due to the complex nature of these signals and present an object-teaching scenario where subjects teach the names of objects to a robot, which in turn shall term these objects correctly afterwards. The robot’s verbal answers are to elicit facial communicative signals of its interaction partners. We investigated the human ability to recognize this spontaneous facial feedback and also the performance of two automatic recognition approaches. The first one is a static approach yielding baseline results, whereas the second considers the temporal dynamics and achieved classification rates comparable to the human performance.

[1]  Yaroslav O. Halchenko,et al.  Brain Reading Using Full Brain Support Vector Machines for Object Recognition: There Is No Face Identification Area , 2008, Neural Computation.

[2]  S. Baron-Cohen.  How to build a baby that can read minds: Cognitive mechanisms in mindreading. , 1994 .

[3]  L. Shah,et al.  Functional magnetic resonance imaging. , 2010, Seminars in roentgenology.

[4]  John F. Canny,et al.  A Computational Approach to Edge Detection , 1986, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[5]  Shaogang Gong,et al.  Tracking colour objects using adaptive mixture models , 1999, Image Vis. Comput..

[6]  B. Parkinson,et al.  Personality and Social Psychology Review Do Facial Movements Express Emotions or Communicate Motives? Personality and Social Psychology Review Additional Services and Information for Do Facial Movements Express Emotions or Communicate Motives? Emotion Expression vs. Motive Communication Emotion Expr , 2022 .

[7]  I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt,et al.  Patterns on the Face: The Eyebrow Flash in Crosscultural Comparison , 2010 .

[8]  Thomas S. Huang,et al.  Human face detection in a complex background , 1994, Pattern Recognit..

[9]  R. Bellman.  Dynamic programming. , 1957, Science.

[10]  E. Saltzman,et al.  Modes of Perceiving and Processing Information , 2014 .

[11]  Fadi Dornaika,et al.  Head and Facial Animation Tracking using Appearance-Adaptive Models and Particle Filters , 2004, CVPR 2004.

[12]  Yang Wang,et al.  Enforcing convexity for improved alignment with constrained local models , 2008, 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[13]  Monson H. Hayes,et al.  Face detection and recognition using hidden Markov models , 1998, Proceedings 1998 International Conference on Image Processing. ICIP98 (Cat. No.98CB36269).

[14]  Rainer Lienhart,et al.  Empirical Analysis of Detection Cascades of Boosted Classifiers for Rapid Object Detection , 2003, DAGM-Symposium.

[15]  Simon Haykin,et al.  Neural Networks: A Comprehensive Foundation , 1998 .

[16]  Eamonn J. Keogh,et al.  Logical-shapelets: an expressive primitive for time series classification , 2011, KDD.

[17]  A. Johnston,et al.  Recognising Faces: Effects of Lighting Direction, Inversion, and Brightness Reversal , 2013, Perception.

[18]  Kerstin Fischer,et al.  Tutor Spotter: Proposing a Feature Set and Evaluating It in a Robotic System , 2011, International Journal of Social Robotics.

[19]  Alice J. O'Toole,et al.  Human recognition of familiar and unfamiliar people in naturalistic video , 2003, 2003 IEEE International SOI Conference. Proceedings (Cat. No.03CH37443).

[20]  Emil M. Petriu,et al.  Real-time 2(1/2)-D head pose recovery for model-based video-coding , 2001, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas..

[21]  Hartmut Neven,et al.  Online facial expression recognition based on personalized galleries , 1998, Proceedings Third IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[22]  Rainer Stiefelhagen,et al.  Head pose estimation using stereo vision for human-robot interaction , 2004, Sixth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 2004. Proceedings..

[23]  R. Cooper.  The effects of eye gaze and emotional facial expression on the allocation of visual attention , 2006 .

[24]  Teun A. van Dijk,et al.  Discourse, context and cognition , 2006 .

[25]  A. Kendon.  Some functions of gaze-direction in social interaction. , 1967, Acta psychologica.

[26]  Ashok Samal,et al.  Human Face Detection Using Silhouettes , 1995, Int. J. Pattern Recognit. Artif. Intell..

[27]  Eamonn J. Keogh,et al.  On the Need for Time Series Data Mining Benchmarks: A Survey and Empirical Demonstration , 2002, Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery.

[28]  J. Ruesch,et al.  Pragmatics of Human Communication: A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies, and Paradoxes. , 1967 .

[29]  M. Bradley,et al.  Measuring emotion: the Self-Assessment Manikin and the Semantic Differential. , 1994, Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry.

[30]  J. Guérit,et al.  Behavioral Neurology and Neuropsychology, T.E. Feinberg, M.J. Farah. McGraw Hill, Berlin (1997), 872 , 1999 .

[31]  Niels da Vitoria Lobo,et al.  Face detection using templates , 1994, Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[32]  V. Bruce,et al.  Reflexive visual orienting in response to the social attention of others , 1999 .

[33]  A. J. Chapman,et al.  Eye contact, physical proximity and laughter: A re-examination of the equilibrium model of social intimacy , 1975 .

[34]  Nando de Freitas,et al.  Sequential Monte Carlo Methods in Practice , 2001, Statistics for Engineering and Information Science.

[35]  Volker Strom,et al.  Visual prosody: facial movements accompanying speech , 2002, Proceedings of Fifth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face Gesture Recognition.

[36]  O. Watson,et al.  Proxemic Behavior: A Cross-Cultural Study. , 1971 .

[37]  Guerra Artal,et al.  Contribuciones al seguimiento visual precategórico , 2002 .

[38]  Takeo Kanade,et al.  Rotation Invariant Neural Network-Based Face Detection , 1998, Proceedings. 1998 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (Cat. No.98CB36231).

[39]  N. Fox,et al.  Social perception in infants , 1985 .

[40]  Ashish Kapoor,et al.  Multimodal affect recognition in learning environments , 2005, ACM Multimedia.

[41]  A. Young,et al.  Understanding face recognition. , 1986, British journal of psychology.

[42]  R. Exline,et al.  VISUAL BEHAVIOR IN A DYAD AS AFFECTED BY INTERVIEW CONTENT AND SEX OF RESPONDENT. , 1965, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[43]  Varol Akman,et al.  Rethinking context as a social construct , 2000 .

[44]  P. Ekman,et al.  The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding , 1969 .

[45]  R. Fisher.  THE USE OF MULTIPLE MEASUREMENTS IN TAXONOMIC PROBLEMS , 1936 .

[46]  Ying Wu,et al.  Query Driven Localized Linear Discriminant Models for Head Pose Estimation , 2007, 2007 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo.

[47]  J. Haxby,et al.  The distributed human neural system for face perception , 2000, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[48]  Helge J. Ritter,et al.  Image Based Recognition of Graze Direction Using Adaptive Methods , 1997, Gesture Workshop.

[49]  Mark H. Johnson.  Subcortical face processing , 2005, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[50]  Manja Lohse,et al.  The function of off-gaze in human-robot interaction , 2011, 2011 RO-MAN.

[51]  Nicolás F. Lori,et al.  Visuo-auditory Multimodal Emotional Structure to Improve Human-Robot-Interaction , 2012, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[52]  S. Baron-Cohen.  Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind , 1997 .

[53]  Yuxiao Hu,et al.  Head Pose Estimation in Seminar Room Using Multi View Face Detectors , 2006, CLEAR.

[54]  Mark H. Johnson,et al.  Gaze detection and the cortical processing of faces: Evidence from infants and adults , 1995 .

[55]  Alexander Zelinsky,et al.  Real-time stereo tracking for head pose and gaze estimation , 2000, Proceedings Fourth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (Cat. No. PR00580).

[56]  Jing-Yu Yang,et al.  Face detection using template matching and skin-color information , 2007, Neurocomputing.

[57]  P. Ivan,et al.  Active Appearance Models for Gaze Estimation Masters Thesis , 2007 .

[58]  Ian Craw,et al.  Finding Face Features , 1992, ECCV.

[59]  Peter Wittenburg,et al.  ELAN: a Professional Framework for Multimodality Research , 2006, LREC.

[60]  Rainer Stiefelhagen,et al.  Neural Network-Based Head Pose Estimation and Multi-view Fusion , 2006, CLEAR.

[61]  J. C. Johnston,et al.  Attention and performance. , 2001, Annual review of psychology.

[62]  Yann LeCun,et al.  Synergistic Face Detection and Pose Estimation with Energy-Based Models , 2004, J. Mach. Learn. Res..

[63]  Bernhard Schölkopf,et al.  Kernel machine based learning for multi-view face detection and pose estimation , 2001, Proceedings Eighth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision. ICCV 2001.

[64]  Ayhan Demiriz,et al.  Linear Programming Boosting via Column Generation , 2002, Machine Learning.

[66]  R. Exline,et al.  Visual interaction: The glances of power and preference. , 1971 .

[67]  Eamonn J. Keogh,et al.  Probabilistic discovery of time series motifs , 2003, KDD '03.

[68]  King Ngi Ngan,et al.  Locating facial region of a head-and-shoulders color image , 1998, Proceedings Third IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[69]  Shigeo Abe DrEng.  Pattern Classification , 2001, Springer London.

[70]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Face recognition using the active appearance model. , 1998, European Conference on Computer Vision.

[71]  Jian-Gang Wang,et al.  EM enhancement of 3D head pose estimated by point at infinity , 2007, Image Vis. Comput..

[72]  Alan Kingstone,et al.  Does gaze direction really trigger a reflexive shift of spatial attention? , 2005, Brain and Cognition.

[73]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  The M170 is selective for faces, not for expertise , 2005, Neuropsychologia.

[74]  Chin-Chuan Han,et al.  Facial feature detection using geometrical face model: An efficient approach , 1998, Pattern Recognit..

[75]  Rama Chellappa,et al.  Human and machine recognition of faces: a survey , 1995, Proc. IEEE.

[76]  A. Kingstone,et al.  The eyes have it! Reflexive orienting is triggered by nonpredictive gaze , 1998 .

[77]  Hong Yan,et al.  An Analytic-to-Holistic Approach for Face Recognition Based on a Single Frontal View , 1998, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[78]  A. Manstead,et al.  Social context effects on facial activity in a negative emotional setting. , 2001, Emotion.

[79]  V. Bruce.  Influences of Familiarity on the Processing of Faces , 1986, Perception.

[80]  R. Manmatha,et al.  Lower-Bounding of Dynamic Time Warping Distances for Multivariate Time Series , 2003 .

[81]  K. Scherer,et al.  Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research. , 2001 .

[82]  James M. Rehg,et al.  Statistical Color Models with Application to Skin Detection , 2004, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[83]  Akhilesh Tiwari,et al.  A Survey on Frequent Pattern Mining: Current Status and Challenging Issues , 2010 .

[84]  A M Burton,et al.  Asymmetric dependencies in perceiving identity and emotion: Experiments with morphed faces , 1999, Perception & psychophysics.

[85]  Gwen Littlewort,et al.  Fully Automatic Facial Action Recognition in Spontaneous Behavior , 2006, 7th International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (FGR06).

[86]  Narendra Ahuja,et al.  Detecting Faces in Images: A Survey , 2002, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[87]  J. Russell,et al.  A cross-cultural study of a circumplex model of affect. , 1989 .

[88]  Azriel Rosenfeld,et al.  Computer Vision , 1988, Adv. Comput..

[89]  I. Gauthier,et al.  Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition , 2000, Nature Neuroscience.

[90]  Richard O. Duda,et al.  Use of the Hough transformation to detect lines and curves in pictures , 1972, CACM.

[91]  Heiko Wersing,et al.  Facial expressions as feedback cue in human-robot interaction—a comparison between human and automatic recognition performances , 2010, 2010 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition - Workshops.

[92]  조은정,et al.  당혹감(embarrassment); 개념분석 , 2002 .

[93]  Harry Wechsler,et al.  Face Location Using A Dynamic Model of Retinal Feature Extraction , 1995 .

[94]  J. Beskow.  Eye Gaze Analysis in Human-Human Interactions , 2007 .

[95]  D. Heylen.  Challenges ahead: head movements and other social acts during conversations , 2005 .

[96]  Eamonn J. Keogh,et al.  Exact indexing of dynamic time warping , 2002, Knowledge and Information Systems.

[97]  Zhao Fei,et al.  Face Detection Based on Rectangular Knowledge Rule and Face Structure , 2009, 2009 First International Conference on Information Science and Engineering.

[98]  Simon Lucey,et al.  Deformable Model Fitting by Regularized Landmark Mean-Shift , 2010, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[99]  S. Carey,et al.  Why faces are and are not special: an effect of expertise. , 1986, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[100]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Active Appearance Models , 2001, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[101]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Statistical models of face images - improving specificity , 1998, Image Vis. Comput..

[102]  P. Stone,et al.  TAMER: Training an Agent Manually via Evaluative Reinforcement , 2008, 2008 7th IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning.

[103]  Marc Hanheide,et al.  Automatic Initialization for Facial Analysis in Interactive Robotics , 2008, ICVS.

[104]  Andrew W. Moore,et al.  Reinforcement Learning: A Survey , 1996, J. Artif. Intell. Res..

[105]  Manja Lohse,et al.  Investigating the influence of situations and expectations in user behavior - empirical analysis in human-robot interaction , 2010 .

[106]  Alice J. O'Toole,et al.  A video database of moving faces and people , 2005, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[107]  Cindy M. Bukach,et al.  Beyond faces and modularity: the power of an expertise framework , 2006, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[108]  Norine Dresser.  Multicultural manners : essential rules of etiquette for the 21st century , 2005 .

[109]  Alex Pentland,et al.  Pfinder: Real-Time Tracking of the Human Body , 1997, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[110]  Hatice Gunes,et al.  A Bimodal Face and Body Gesture Database for Automatic Analysis of Human Nonverbal Affective Behavior , 2006, 18th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR'06).

[111]  Li Wei,et al.  Fast time series classification using numerosity reduction , 2006, ICML.

[112]  Michael G. Strintzis,et al.  Face Recognition , 2008, Encyclopedia of Multimedia.

[113]  C. Osgood.  Dimensionality of the semantic space for communication via facial expressions. , 1966, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[114]  R. Yin.  Looking at Upside-down Faces , 1969 .

[115]  Marian Stewart Bartlett,et al.  Classifying Facial Actions , 1999, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[116]  Shaogang Gong,et al.  Real-time face pose estimation , 1998, Real Time Imaging.

[117]  Takeo Kanade,et al.  Real-time combined 2D+3D active appearance models , 2004, CVPR 2004.

[118]  Gwen Littlewort,et al.  Recognizing facial expression: machine learning and application to spontaneous behavior , 2005, 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'05).

[119]  J. Tanaka,et al.  Features and their configuration in face recognition , 1997, Memory & cognition.

[120]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Automatically building appearance models from image sequences using salient features , 2002, Image Vis. Comput..

[121]  J. Russell,et al.  Descriptive and Prescriptive Definitions of Emotion , 2010 .

[122]  Takeo Kanade,et al.  Recognizing Action Units for Facial Expression Analysis , 2001, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[123]  M. Tarr,et al.  Unraveling mechanisms for expert object recognition: bridging brain activity and behavior. , 2002, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[124]  Ioannis Pitas,et al.  A novel method for automatic face segmentation, facial feature extraction and tracking , 1998, Signal Process. Image Commun..

[125]  Pierre Geurts,et al.  Pattern Extraction for Time Series Classification , 2001, PKDD.

[126]  Nicu Sebe,et al.  Emotion Recognition Based on Joint Visual and Audio Cues , 2006, 18th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR'06).

[127]  Shihong Lao,et al.  Sparse Bayesian Regression for Head Pose Estimation , 2006, 18th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR'06).

[128]  C. Osgood,et al.  The Measurement of Meaning , 1958 .

[129]  Lei Zhang,et al.  Face Recognition Using a Multi-manifold Discriminant Analysis Method , 2010, 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[130]  Dirk Heylen,et al.  Determining what people feel and think when interacting with humans and machines Notes on corpus collection and annotation , 2006 .

[131]  Ling Chen,et al.  Large head movement tracking using sift-based registration , 2007, ACM Multimedia.

[132]  G. Hole.  Configurational Factors in the Perception of Unfamiliar Faces , 1994, Perception.

[133]  Moritz Stoerring,et al.  Computer vision and human skin colour , 2004 .

[134]  C. Izard.  The face of emotion , 1971 .

[135]  Ian Craw,et al.  Automatic extraction of face-features , 1987, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[136]  Narendra Ahuja,et al.  Detecting human faces in color images , 1998, Proceedings 1998 International Conference on Image Processing. ICIP98 (Cat. No.98CB36269).

[137]  Kim L. Boyer,et al.  Head pose estimation using view based eigenspaces , 2002, Object recognition supported by user interaction for service robots.

[138]  Loredana Cerrato,et al.  A method for the analysis and measurement of communicative head movements in human dialogues , 2003, AVSP.

[139]  M. Argyle,et al.  Gaze, Mutual Gaze, and Proximity , 1972 .

[140]  J. F. Mclachlan.  A short adjective check list for the evaluation of anxiety and depression. , 1976, Journal of clinical psychology.

[141]  Åke Björck,et al.  Numerical methods for least square problems , 1996 .

[142]  A. Ardeshir Goshtasby,et al.  Detecting human faces in color images , 1998, Image Vis. Comput..

[143]  Qingshan Liu,et al.  Facial expression recognition using encoded dynamic features , 2007, 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[144]  P. Ekman,et al.  Strong evidence for universals in facial expressions: a reply to Russell's mistaken critique. , 1994, Psychological bulletin.

[145]  R. Johnstone,et al.  Animal signals , 2013, Current Biology.

[146]  Mohan M. Trivedi,et al.  A two-stage head pose estimation framework and evaluation , 2008, Pattern Recognit..

[147]  Oscar Déniz-Suárez,et al.  The ENCARA System for Face Detection and Normalization , 2003, IbPRIA.

[148]  E. Oja,et al.  Independent Component Analysis , 2013 .

[149]  Takeo Kanade,et al.  Picture Processing System by Computer Complex and Recognition of Human Faces , 1974 .

[150]  Roddy Cowie,et al.  FEELTRACE: an instrument for recording perceived emotion in real time , 2000 .

[151]  Qiong Liu,et al.  A robust skin color based face detection algorithm , 2010, 2010 2nd International Asia Conference on Informatics in Control, Automation and Robotics (CAR 2010).

[152]  Michael C. Burl,et al.  Finding faces in cluttered scenes using random labeled graph matching , 1995, Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision.

[153]  Isabel Gauthier,et al.  Should we reject the expertise hypothesis? , 2007, Cognition.

[154]  R. Kleck,et al.  Perceived Gaze Direction and the Processing of Facial Displays of Emotion , 2003, Psychological science.

[155]  Rainer Lienhart,et al.  An extended set of Haar-like features for rapid object detection , 2002, Proceedings. International Conference on Image Processing.

[156]  J. P. Otteson,et al.  Effect of Teacher's Gaze on Children's Story Recall , 1980 .

[157]  J. Bavelas,et al.  Visible Acts of Meaning , 2000 .

[158]  Saad Ahmed Sirohey,et al.  Human Face Segmentation and Identification , 1998 .

[159]  Maja Pantic,et al.  Expert system for automatic analysis of facial expressions , 2000, Image Vis. Comput..

[160]  Myung Jin Chung,et al.  Non-contact eye gaze tracking system by mapping of corneal reflections , 2002, Proceedings of Fifth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face Gesture Recognition.

[161]  A. Ishai,et al.  Distributed and Overlapping Representations of Faces and Objects in Ventral Temporal Cortex , 2001, Science.

[162]  Felicia A Huppert,et al.  Evidence for the independence of positive and negative well-being: implications for quality of life assessment. , 2003, British journal of health psychology.

[163]  V. Bruce,et al.  Face Recognition in Poor-Quality Video: Evidence From Security Surveillance , 1999 .

[164]  Perception: About faces , 2009, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[165]  Nicu Sebe,et al.  Authentic Facial Expression Analysis , 2004, FGR.

[166]  James Bailey,et al.  Mining Minimal Distinguishing Subsequence Patterns with Gap Constraints , 2005, ICDM.

[167]  M. Tarr,et al.  Becoming a “Greeble” Expert: Exploring Mechanisms for Face Recognition , 1997, Vision Research.

[168]  Paul A. Viola,et al.  Rapid object detection using a boosted cascade of simple features , 2001, Proceedings of the 2001 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. CVPR 2001.

[169]  Shigeru Akamatsu,et al.  Detection of human faces in complex scene images by use of a skin color model and of invariant Fourier-Mellin moments , 1998, Proceedings. Fourteenth International Conference on Pattern Recognition (Cat. No.98EX170).

[170]  Lawrence S. Chen,et al.  Joint processing of audio-visual information for the recognition of emotional expressions in human-computer interaction , 2000 .

[171]  J. Barefoot,et al.  Non-verbal responses and affiliative conflict theory. , 1974, The British journal of social and clinical psychology.

[172]  Stan Z. Li,et al.  FloatBoost learning and statistical face detection , 2004, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[173]  John Lyons,et al.  Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics , 1971 .

[174]  Helge J. Ritter,et al.  Recognition of human head orientation based on artificial neural networks , 1998, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks.

[175]  S. Schweinberger,et al.  Asymmetric relationships among perceptions of facial identity, emotion, and facial speech. , 1998, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[176]  S. Anstis,et al.  The perception of where a face or television "portrait" is looking. , 1969, The American journal of psychology.

[177]  Alan L. Yuille,et al.  Feature extraction from faces using deformable templates , 2004, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[178]  C. Izard.  The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation , 2010 .

[179]  M. Tarr,et al.  Visual expertise with nonface objects leads to competition with the early perceptual processing of faces in the human occipitotemporal cortex. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[180]  José-Miguel Fernández-Dols,et al.  Are smiles a sign of happiness ? Gold medal winners at the olympic games , 1995 .

[181]  Gunther Wyszecki,et al.  Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae, 2nd Edition , 2000 .

[182]  Takeo Kanade,et al.  Comprehensive database for facial expression analysis , 2000, Proceedings Fourth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (Cat. No. PR00580).

[183]  Dimitris N. Metaxas,et al.  The integration of optical flow and deformable models with applications to human face shape and motion estimation , 1996, Proceedings CVPR IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[184]  Christopher M. Bishop,et al.  Neural networks for pattern recognition , 1995 .

[185]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Face Recognition Using Active Appearance Models , 1998, ECCV.

[186]  Jian-Gang Wang,et al.  Study on eye gaze estimation , 2002, IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part B.

[187]  V. Bruce,et al.  Do the eyes have it? Cues to the direction of social attention , 2000, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[188]  Joseph Weizenbaum,et al.  ELIZA—a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine , 1966, CACM.

[189]  P. Ekman,et al.  The Duchenne smile: emotional expression and brain physiology. II. , 1990, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[190]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Feature Detection and Tracking with Constrained Local Models , 2006, BMVC.

[191]  B. Schiele,et al.  Fast and Robust Face Finding via Local Context , 2003 .

[192]  Juan Carlos Niebles,et al.  Unsupervised Learning of Human Action Categories Using Spatial-Temporal Words , 2008, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[193]  Yoav Freund,et al.  A decision-theoretic generalization of on-line learning and an application to boosting , 1997, EuroCOLT.

[194]  F. Bookstein.  Landmark methods for forms without landmarks: localizing group differences in outline shape , 1996, Proceedings of the Workshop on Mathematical Methods in Biomedical Image Analysis.

[195]  Roberto Cipolla,et al.  A probabilistic framework for perceptual grouping of features for human face detection , 1996, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[196]  M. Farah,et al.  Parts and Wholes in Face Recognition , 1993, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. A, Human experimental psychology.

[197]  Daniel McDuff,et al.  Affect valence inference from facial action unit spectrograms , 2010, 2010 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition - Workshops.

[198]  J. Boucher,et al.  Recognition of Facial Expression in Three Cultures , 1980 .

[199]  Jennifer S. Beer,et al.  Facial expression of emotion. , 2003 .

[200]  Liming Chen,et al.  Face detection in video using combined data-mining and histogram based skin-color model , 2003, 3rd International Symposium on Image and Signal Processing and Analysis, 2003. ISPA 2003. Proceedings of the.

[201]  Takeshi Mita,et al.  Joint Haar-like features for face detection , 2005, Tenth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV'05) Volume 1.

[202]  Shinichi Morishita.  Computing Optimal Hypotheses Efficiently for Boosting , 2002, Progress in Discovery Science.

[203]  Elinor McKone,et al.  The evidence rejects the expertise hypothesis: Reply to Gauthier & Bukach , 2007, Cognition.

[204]  P. Ekman,et al.  The symmetry of emotional and deliberate facial actions. , 1981, Psychophysiology.

[205]  Emiel Krahmer,et al.  The dual of denial: Two uses of disconfirmations in dialogue and their prosodic correlates , 2002, Speech Commun..

[206]  R. Galper,et al.  Recognition of faces in photographic negative , 1970 .

[207]  S. Maynard.  Interactional functions of a nonverbal sign Head movement in japanese dyadic casual conversation , 1987 .

[208]  Francisco Casacuberta,et al.  On the verification of triangle inequality by dynamic time-warping dissimilarity measures , 1988, Speech Commun..

[209]  M. Westbrook.  Positive affect: a method of content analysis for verbal samples. , 1976, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[210]  Nicole Chovil.  Social determinants of facial displays , 1991 .

[211]  Mohan M. Trivedi,et al.  Head Pose Estimation in Computer Vision: A Survey , 2009, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[212]  Ipke Wachsmuth,et al.  Gesture and Sign Language in Human-Computer Interaction , 1998, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[213]  Katharina J. Rohlfing,et al.  Which ostensive stimuli can be used for a robot to detect and maintain tutoring situations? , 2009, 2009 3rd International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction and Workshops.

[214]  Chil-Woo Lee,et al.  Detection and pose estimation of human face with synthesized image models , 1994, Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[215]  Shaogang Gong,et al.  Support vector machine based multi-view face detection and recognition , 2004, Image Vis. Comput..

[216]  Yuji Matsumoto,et al.  An Application of Boosting to Graph Classification , 2004, NIPS.

[217]  D. Rubin,et al.  Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM - algorithm plus discussions on the paper , 1977 .

[218]  R. Bruyer,et al.  Expertise in Person Recognition , 1992 .

[219]  Carlos Hitoshi Morimoto,et al.  Eye gaze tracking techniques for interactive applications , 2005, Comput. Vis. Image Underst..

[220]  S. Chiba,et al.  Dynamic programming algorithm optimization for spoken word recognition , 1978 .

[221]  Demetri Terzopoulos,et al.  Snakes: Active contour models , 2004, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[222]  Paul Miller,et al.  Verification of face identities from images captured on video. , 1999 .

[223]  Matthijs C. Dorst.  Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints , 2011 .

[224]  Yuichiro Yoshikawa,et al.  Effects of Observing Eye Contact between a Robot and Another Person , 2011, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[225]  Mark de Berg,et al.  Computational geometry: algorithms and applications , 1997 .

[226]  Wendelin Reich,et al.  Toward a Computational Model of "Context" , 2011, AAAI Spring Symposium: Help Me Help You: Bridging the Gaps in Human-Agent Collaboration.

[227]  T. Allison,et al.  Face-Specific Processing in the Human Fusiform Gyrus , 1997, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[228]  Leo Breiman,et al.  Random Forests , 2001, Machine Learning.

[229]  Robert E. Kraut,et al.  Social presence, facial feedback, and emotion. , 1982, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

[230]  J. M. Carroll,et al.  Facial Expressions in Hollywood's Portrayal of Emotion , 1997 .

[231]  T. Poggio,et al.  I think I know that face... , 1996, Nature.

[232]  P. Green.  Biology and Cognitive Development: the Case of Face Recognition, Mark H. Johnson, John Morton. Blackwell, Oxford (1991), x, +180. Price £35.00 hardback, £10.95 paperback , 1992 .

[233]  Jing Xiao,et al.  Automatic analysis and recognition of brow actions and head motion in spontaneous facial behavior , 2004, 2004 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37583).

[234]  Enrique Muñoz,et al.  Recognising facial expressions in video sequences , 2007, Pattern Analysis and Applications.

[235]  Shumeet Baluja,et al.  Non-Intrusive Gaze Tracking Using Artificial Neural Networks , 1993, NIPS.

[236]  Adam Kendon,et al.  Some uses of the head shake , 2002 .

[237]  Evelyn Z. McClave.  Linguistic functions of head movements in the context of speech , 2000 .

[238]  Takahiro Ishikawa,et al.  Passive driver gaze tracking with active appearance models , 2004 .

[239]  M. Tarr,et al.  Activation of the middle fusiform 'face area' increases with expertise in recognizing novel objects , 1999, Nature Neuroscience.

[240]  Peter Robinson,et al.  Real-Time Inference of Complex Mental States from Facial Expressions and Head Gestures , 2004, 2004 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshop.

[241]  Sang Chul Ahn,et al.  Object oriented face detection using range and color information , 1998, Proceedings Third IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[242]  Larry S. Davis,et al.  Computing 3-D head orientation from a monocular image sequence , 1996, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[243]  Fernando De la Torre,et al.  Bilinear Active Appearance Models , 2007, 2007 IEEE 11th International Conference on Computer Vision.

[244]  Bo Wu,et al.  Fast rotation invariant multi-view face detection based on real Adaboost , 2004, Sixth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 2004. Proceedings..

[245]  Chiara Turati,et al.  Why Faces Are Not Special to Newborns , 2004 .

[246]  Lisa Gralewski,et al.  Using a tensor framework for the analysis of facial dynamics , 2006, 7th International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (FGR06).

[247]  Ehud Rivlin,et al.  Robust 3D Head Tracking Using Camera Pose Estimation , 2006, 18th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR'06).

[248]  Emiel Krahmer,et al.  Problem detection in human-machine interactions based on facial expressions of users , 2005, Speech Commun..

[249]  Bing-Yu Sun,et al.  A Study on the Dynamic Time Warping in Kernel Machines , 2007, 2007 Third International IEEE Conference on Signal-Image Technologies and Internet-Based System.

[250]  D. Kendall.  A Survey of the Statistical Theory of Shape , 1989 .

[251]  George Eastman House,et al.  Sparse Bayesian Learning and the Relevan e Ve tor Ma hine , 2001 .

[252]  Richa Singh,et al.  A Robust Skin Color Based Face Detection Algorithm , 2003 .

[253]  Chih-Jen Lin,et al.  LIBSVM: A library for support vector machines , 2011, TIST.

[254]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Comparing Active Shape Models with Active Appearance Models , 1999, BMVC.

[255]  Barbara Caputo,et al.  Recognizing human actions: a local SVM approach , 2004, ICPR 2004.

[256]  J. G. Taylor,et al.  Emotion recognition in human-computer interaction , 2005, Neural Networks.

[257]  C. Izard.  Innate and universal facial expressions: evidence from developmental and cross-cultural research. , 1994, Psychological bulletin.

[258]  Anil K. Jain,et al.  Face Detection in Color Images , 2002, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[259]  Margot J. Taylor,et al.  Face Recognition Memory and Configural Processing: A Developmental ERP Study using Upright, Inverted, and Contrast-Reversed Faces , 2004, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[260]  M. Lorr,et al.  AN ANALYSIS OF MOOD IN NEUROTICS. , 1964, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[261]  Nils Hofemann.  Videobasierte Handlungserkennung für die natürliche Mensch-Maschine-Interaktion , 2006 .

[262]  J. Russell.  Facial expressions of emotion: what lies beyond minimal universality? , 1995, Psychological bulletin.

[263]  Luc Van Gool,et al.  Real time head pose estimation with random regression forests , 2011, CVPR 2011.

[264]  Alexander H. Waibel,et al.  A real-time face tracker , 1996, Proceedings Third IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision. WACV'96.

[265]  S T Roweis,et al.  Nonlinear dimensionality reduction by locally linear embedding. , 2000, Science.

[266]  Katharina J. Rohlfing,et al.  “Try something else!” — When users change their discursive behavior in human-robot interaction , 2008, 2008 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[267]  Keiji Tanaka,et al.  Coding visual images of objects in the inferotemporal cortex of the macaque monkey. , 1991, Journal of neurophysiology.

[268]  J. Ross Quinlan,et al.  C4.5: Programs for Machine Learning , 1992 .

[269]  Heiko Wersing,et al.  Feedback interpretation based on facial expressions in human-robot interaction , 2009, RO-MAN 2009 - The 18th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[270]  Sebastian Nowozin,et al.  Discriminative Subsequence Mining for Action Classification , 2007, 2007 IEEE 11th International Conference on Computer Vision.

[271]  Simon Lucey,et al.  Face alignment through subspace constrained mean-shifts , 2009, 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision.

[272]  M. Bartlett,et al.  Face image analysis by unsupervised learning and redundancy reduction , 1998 .

[273]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Active Shape Models-Their Training and Application , 1995, Comput. Vis. Image Underst..

[274]  Patrik O. Hoyer,et al.  Non-negative sparse coding , 2002, Proceedings of the 12th IEEE Workshop on Neural Networks for Signal Processing.

[275]  J. Russell.  Evidence of Convergent Validity on the Dimensions of Affect , 1978 .

[276]  L. Baumela,et al.  Variations of Grey World for face tracking , 2001 .

[277]  Yoram Singer,et al.  Improved Boosting Algorithms Using Confidence-rated Predictions , 1998, COLT' 98.

[278]  Simon Lucey,et al.  Investigating Spontaneous Facial Action Recognition through AAM Representations of the Face , 2007 .

[279]  R. Vaughan,et al.  Effects of being observed on expressive, subjective, and physiological responses to painful stimuli. , 1976, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[280]  N. Kanwisher.  Domain specificity in face perception , 2000, Nature Neuroscience.

[281]  Jing Xiao,et al.  Fitting a Single Active Appearance Model Simultaneously to Multiple Images , 2004, BMVC.

[282]  M. Turk,et al.  Eigenfaces for Recognition , 1991, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[283]  Yukiko I. Nakano,et al.  Towards a Model of Face-to-Face Grounding , 2003, ACL.

[284]  Hiromitsu Kobayashi,et al.  Unique morphology of the human eye , 1997, Nature.

[285]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Locating faces using statistical feature detectors , 1996, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[286]  Alex Zelinsky,et al.  Learning OpenCV---Computer Vision with the OpenCV Library (Bradski, G.R. et al.; 2008)[On the Shelf] , 2009, IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine.

[287]  J. Valsiner,et al.  Recognition of facial expressions: An experimental investigation of Ekman's model. , 1977 .

[288]  Chao Zhang,et al.  3D Head Pose Estimation Using Non-rigid Structure-from-motion and Point Correspondence , 2006, TENCON 2006 - 2006 IEEE Region 10 Conference.

[289]  Bogdan Raducanu,et al.  Appearance-based face recognition using a supervised manifold learning framework , 2012, 2012 IEEE Workshop on the Applications of Computer Vision (WACV).

[290]  A. J. Fridlund,et al.  Audience effects on solitary faces during imagery: Displaying to the people in your head , 1990 .

[291]  Simon Baker,et al.  Active Appearance Models Revisited , 2004, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[292]  Brian V. Funt,et al.  Is Machine Colour Constancy Good Enough? , 1998, ECCV.

[293]  Alberto Maria Segre,et al.  Programs for Machine Learning , 1994 .

[294]  G. Butterworth,et al.  Towards a Mechanism of Joint Visual Attention in Human Infancy , 1980 .

[295]  Sethuraman Panchanathan,et al.  Biased Manifold Embedding: A Framework for Person-Independent Head Pose Estimation , 2007, 2007 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[296]  Yann LeCun,et al.  Loss Functions for Discriminative Training of Energy-Based Models , 2005, AISTATS.

[297]  Michael Halliday,et al.  Cohesion in English , 1976 .

[298]  Uri Hadar,et al.  Kinematics of head movements accompanying speech during conversation , 1983 .

[299]  William T. Freeman,et al.  Example-based head tracking , 1996, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[300]  S. Carey,et al.  From piecemeal to configurational representation of faces. , 1977, Science.

[301]  Katsuhiko Shirai,et al.  Facial expressions recognition using discrete Hopfield neural networks , 1997, Proceedings of International Conference on Image Processing.

[302]  R. Provine,et al.  Laughing, Smiling, and Talking: Relation to Sleeping and Social Context in Humans , 2010 .

[303]  Yul-Wan Sung,et al.  Functional magnetic resonance imaging , 2004, Scholarpedia.

[304]  D. Perrett,et al.  Understanding the intentions of others from visual signals: Neurophysiological evidence. , 1994 .

[305]  M. Bindemann,et al.  How do eye gaze and facial expression interact? , 2008 .

[306]  Sebastian Wrede,et al.  Who am I talking with? A face memory for social robots , 2008, 2008 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[307]  Dana H. Ballard,et al.  Computer Vision , 1982 .

[308]  P. Ekman.  Should we call it expression or communication , 1997 .

[309]  Nicole Chovil.  Discourse‐oriented facial displays in conversation , 1991 .

[310]  Luciano Arcuri,et al.  Emotion Recognition in Ethiopia , 1982 .

[311]  Norbert Krüger,et al.  Determination of face position and pose with a learned representation based on labelled graphs , 1997, Image Vis. Comput..

[312]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  An Algorithm for Tuning an Active Appearance Model to New Data , 2006, BMVC.

[313]  S. Langton,et al.  The influence of head contour and nose angle on the perception of eye-gaze direction , 2004, Perception & psychophysics.

[314]  G. Wyszecki,et al.  Color Science Concepts and Methods , 1982 .

[315]  Marc Hanheide,et al.  Evaluation and Discussion of Multi-modal Emotion Recognition , 2009, 2009 Second International Conference on Computer and Electrical Engineering.

[316]  Francis T. McAndrew,et al.  A Cross-Cultural Study of Recognition Thresholds for Facial Expressions of Emotion , 1986 .

[317]  Hang-Bong Kang.  Face Detection with an Adaptive Skin Color Segmentation and Eye Features , 2006 .

[318]  Hatice Gunes,et al.  How to distinguish posed from spontaneous smiles using geometric features , 2007, ICMI '07.

[319]  Oscar Déniz-Suárez,et al.  ENCARA2: Real-time detection of multiple faces at different resolutions in video streams , 2007, J. Vis. Commun. Image Represent..

[320]  A. J. Fridlund.  Human Facial Expression: An Evolutionary View , 1994 .

[321]  Jignesh M. Patel,et al.  Efficient and Accurate Discovery of Patterns in Sequence Data Sets , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering.

[322]  David Beymer,et al.  Face recognition under varying pose , 1994, 1994 Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[323]  Eamonn J. Keogh,et al.  Time series shapelets: a novel technique that allows accurate, interpretable and fast classification , 2010, Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery.

[324]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  The Fusiform Face Area: A Module in Human Extrastriate Cortex Specialized for Face Perception , 1997, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[325]  Oleg Seredin,et al.  Comparative Testing of Face Detection Algorithms , 2010, ICISP.

[326]  Eamonn J. Keogh,et al.  Time series shapelets: a new primitive for data mining , 2009, KDD.

[327]  C. Kleinke.  Gaze and eye contact: a research review. , 1986, Psychological bulletin.

[328]  Marvin R. Goldfried,et al.  On the Bipolarity of Semantic Space , 1965 .

[329]  R. Fry,et al.  The Effects of Feedback and Eye Contact on Performance of a Digit-Coding Task , 1975 .

[330]  Roberto Cipolla,et al.  Determining the gaze of faces in images , 1994, Image Vis. Comput..

[331]  D. Hooper,et al.  Book reviewSemantic differential technique: by James G. Snider and Charles E. Osgood Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago, 1969. xiii + 681. $12.50 , 1971 .

[332]  P. Ekman,et al.  Facial action coding system: a technique for the measurement of facial movement , 1978 .

[333]  Harry Wechsler,et al.  Detection of human faces using decision trees , 1996, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[334]  Laura Vincze,et al.  Types of Nods. The Polysemy of a Social Signal , 2010, LREC.

[335]  J. Haxby,et al.  Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Human Visual Cortex during Face Matching: A Comparison with Positron Emission Tomography , 1996, NeuroImage.

[336]  Jong-Hwan Kim,et al.  Fast and Robust Face Detection Using Evolutionary Pruning , 2008, IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation.

[337]  K. Rohlfing,et al.  People modify their tutoring behavior in robot-directed interaction for action learning , 2009, 2009 IEEE 8th International Conference on Development and Learning.

[338]  James L. Crowley,et al.  Multi-modal tracking of faces for video communications , 1997, Proceedings of IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[339]  Ralph Gross,et al.  Generic vs. person specific active appearance models , 2005, Image Vis. Comput..

[340]  George N. Votsis,et al.  Emotion recognition in human-computer interaction , 2001, IEEE Signal Process. Mag..

[341]  Andrea Lockerd Thomaz,et al.  Multi-cue Contingency Detection , 2012, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[342]  Joachim M. Buhmann,et al.  Distortion Invariant Object Recognition in the Dynamic Link Architecture , 1993, IEEE Trans. Computers.

[343]  Kostas Karpouzis,et al.  Emotion recognition through facial expression analysis based on a neurofuzzy network , 2005, Neural Networks.

[344]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  The fusiform face area: a cortical region specialized for the perception of faces , 2006, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[345]  P. Ekman.  An argument for basic emotions , 1992 .

[346]  Albert Mehrabian,et al.  Encoding of attitude by a seated communicator via posture and position cues. , 1969 .

[347]  Frank Lömker,et al.  Building Modular Vision Systems with a Graphical Plugin Environment , 2006, Fourth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Systems (ICVS'06).

[348]  J. Lien,et al.  Automatic recognition of facial expressions using hidden markov models and estimation of expression intensity , 1998 .

[349]  David Zhang,et al.  Time Series Classification Using Support Vector Machine with Gaussian Elastic Metric Kernel , 2010, 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[350]  A. J. Fridlund.  Sociality of Solitary Smiling: Potentiation by an Implicit Audience , 1991 .

[351]  Heiko Wersing,et al.  Facial communicative signal interpretation in human-robot interaction by discriminative video subsequence selection , 2013, 2013 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[352]  Mohan M. Trivedi,et al.  Head Pose Estimation for Driver Assistance Systems: A Robust Algorithm and Experimental Evaluation , 2007, 2007 IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference.

[353]  J. Russell.  A circumplex model of affect. , 1980 .

[354]  E. Goffman.  Behavior in public places : notes on the social organization of gatherings , 1964 .

[355]  J. Russell.  Forced-choice response format in the study of facial expression , 1993 .

[356]  James S. Simkin.  Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication , 1972 .

[357]  R. Reisenzein,et al.  Evidence for strong dissociation between emotion and facial displays: the case of surprise. , 2006, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[358]  Shigeki Sagayama,et al.  Dynamic Time-Alignment Kernel in Support Vector Machine , 2001, NIPS.

[359]  Leslie G. Ungerleider,et al.  The functional organization of human extrastriate cortex: a PET-rCBF study of selective attention to faces and locations , 1994, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[360]  Ivar Farup,et al.  A Comparison of Face/Non-face Classifiers , 2001, AVBPA.

[361]  Jessica L. Tracy,et al.  The spontaneous expression of pride and shame: Evidence for biologically innate nonverbal displays , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[362]  Hatice Gunes,et al.  Dimensional Emotion Prediction from Spontaneous Head Gestures for Interaction with Sensitive Artificial Listeners , 2010, IVA.

[363]  Snigdhansu Chatterjee,et al.  Procrustes Problems , 2005, Technometrics.

[364]  Marc Hanheide,et al.  Evaluating a social home tour robot applying heuristics , 2008 .

[365]  A. Freitas-Magalhães.  Facial Expression of Emotion , 2012 .

[366]  C. Taylor,et al.  Active shape models - 'Smart Snakes'. , 1992 .

[367]  Lawrence Sirovich,et al.  Application of the Karhunen-Loeve Procedure for the Characterization of Human Faces , 1990, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[368]  Kostas Karpouzis,et al.  The HUMAINE Database: Addressing the Collection and Annotation of Naturalistic and Induced Emotional Data , 2007, ACII.

[369]  J. S. Efran.  Looking for approval: effects on visual behavior of approbation from persons differing in importance. , 1968, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[370]  M. Farah,et al.  What is "special" about face perception? , 1998, Psychological review.

[371]  Ioannis Pitas,et al.  Rule-based face detection in frontal views , 1997, 1997 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing.

[372]  Loïc Kessous,et al.  Modeling naturalistic affective states via facial and vocal expressions recognition , 2006, ICMI '06.

[373]  M. Rziza,et al.  Face Detection in Still Color Images Using Skin Color Information , 2006 .

[374]  Takeo Kanade,et al.  Neural Network-Based Face Detection , 1998, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[375]  Mikhail Belkin,et al.  Laplacian Eigenmaps for Dimensionality Reduction and Data Representation , 2003, Neural Computation.

[376]  Takayoshi Yamashita,et al.  Incremental Learning of Boosted Face Detector , 2007, 2007 IEEE 11th International Conference on Computer Vision.

[377]  Mark H. Johnson,et al.  Newborns' preferential tracking of face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline , 1991, Cognition.

[378]  Frank W. Schneider,et al.  Visual behavior in an unfocused interaction as a function of sex and distance , 1975 .

[379]  Zhihong Zeng,et al.  Audio-visual affect recognition in activation-evaluation space , 2005, 2005 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo.

[380]  Dirk Heylen,et al.  The MultiLis Corpus - Dealing with Individual Differences in Nonverbal Listening Behavior , 2010, COST 2102 Training School.

[381]  Dirk Heylen,et al.  Head Gestures, Gaze and the Principles of Conversational Structure , 2006, Int. J. Humanoid Robotics.

[382]  N. Emery,et al.  The eyes have it: the neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze , 2000, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[383]  Fabio Pianesi,et al.  The Properties of DaFEx, a Database of Kinetic Facial Expressions , 2005, ACII.

[384]  P. Ekman,et al.  DIFFERENCES Universals and Cultural Differences in the Judgments of Facial Expressions of Emotion , 2004 .

[385]  J. Crowley,et al.  Estimating Face orientation from Robust Detection of Salient Facial Structures , 2004 .

[386]  G Breed,et al.  The effect of intimacy: reciprocity or retreat? , 1972, The British journal of social and clinical psychology.

[387]  Michael Isard,et al.  CONDENSATION—Conditional Density Propagation for Visual Tracking , 1998, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[388]  Eamonn J. Keogh,et al.  Mining motifs in massive time series databases , 2002, 2002 IEEE International Conference on Data Mining, 2002. Proceedings..

[389]  Jun Wang,et al.  A 3D facial expression database for facial behavior research , 2006, 7th International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (FGR06).

[390]  Zhengyou Zhang,et al.  Taylor expansion based classifier adaptation: Application to person detection , 2008, 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[391]  Zhihong Zeng,et al.  A Survey of Affect Recognition Methods: Audio, Visual, and Spontaneous Expressions , 2009, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[392]  Y. Yamane,et al.  Complex objects are represented in macaque inferotemporal cortex by the combination of feature columns , 2001, Nature Neuroscience.

[393]  H. R. Beech,et al.  Social Interaction , 1970, Encyclopedia of Social Network Analysis and Mining.

[394]  José Miguel Buenaposada,et al.  Real-time tracking and estimation of plane pose , 2002, Object recognition supported by user interaction for service robots.

[395]  F Dobson,et al.  Eye contact. , 1993, Nursing times.

[396]  F. Hara,et al.  Facial interaction between animated 3D face robot and human beings , 1997, 1997 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. Computational Cybernetics and Simulation.

[397]  Ruigang Yang,et al.  Model-based head pose tracking with stereovision , 2002, Proceedings of Fifth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face Gesture Recognition.

[398]  Michael J. Black,et al.  A Probabilistic Framework for Matching Temporal Trajectories: CONDENSATION-Based Recognition of Gestures and Expressions , 1998, ECCV.

[399]  Yoichi Sato,et al.  Head Pose Estimation System Based on Particle Filtering with Adaptive Diffusion Control , 2005, MVA.

[400]  Paul A. Viola,et al.  Fast Multi-view Face Detection , 2003 .

[401]  Sebastian Lang,et al.  BIRON - The Bielefeld Robot Companion , 2004 .

[402]  P. Hobbs.  Wiley Series in Pure and Applied Optics , 2008 .

[403]  M. T. Motley,et al.  Facial expression of emotion: A comparison of posed expressions versus spontaneous expressions in an interpersonal communication setting , 1988 .

[404]  Rachel A Robbins,et al.  No face-like processing for objects-of-expertise in three behavioural tasks , 2007, Cognition.

[405]  Erik Hjelmås,et al.  Face Detection: A Survey , 2001, Comput. Vis. Image Underst..

[406]  Alexander J. Smola,et al.  Support Vector Regression Machines , 1996, NIPS.

[407]  J. Russell.  Affective space is bipolar. , 1979 .

[408]  Anthony Widjaja,et al.  Learning with Kernels: Support Vector Machines, Regularization, Optimization, and Beyond , 2003, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks.

[409]  Nick Donnelly,et al.  The mental representations of faces and houses: Issues concerning parts and wholes , 1999 .

[410]  J. Russell,et al.  The circumplex model of affect: An integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and psychopathology , 2005, Development and Psychopathology.

[411]  M. Cline.  The perception of where a person is looking. , 1967, The American journal of psychology.

[412]  Mohammed Yeasin,et al.  Recognition of facial expressions and measurement of levels of interest from video , 2006, IEEE Transactions on Multimedia.

[413]  M. Patterson,et al.  Compensatory Reactions to Spatial Intrusion , 1971 .

[414]  V Bruce,et al.  The Use of Pigmentation and Shading Information in Recognising the Sex and Identities of Faces , 1994, Perception.

[415]  Jon Driver,et al.  The positive and negative of human expertise in gaze perception , 2000, Cognition.

[416]  Rong Xiao,et al.  Boosting chain learning for object detection , 2003, Proceedings Ninth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision.

[417]  David W. Townsend,et al.  Positon emission tomography: basic science and clinical practice , 2008 .

[418]  Jianyong Wang,et al.  Mining sequential patterns by pattern-growth: the PrefixSpan approach , 2004, IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering.

[419]  Antony Stephen Reid Manstead,et al.  Communication of individual emotions by spontaneous facial expressions , 1986 .

[420]  Tomaso A. Poggio,et al.  Example-Based Learning for View-Based Human Face Detection , 1998, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[421]  R. Exline.  Explorations in the process of person perception: visual interaction in relation to competition, sex, and need for affiliation , 1963 .

[422]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  An Automatic Face Identification System Using Flexible Appearance Models , 1994, BMVC.

[423]  Zhengyou Zhang,et al.  A Survey of Recent Advances in Face Detection , 2010 .

[424]  Gwen Littlewort,et al.  The computer expression recognition toolbox (CERT) , 2011, Face and Gesture 2011.

[425]  M. Tarr,et al.  Training ‘greeble’ experts: a framework for studying expert object recognition processes , 1998, Vision Research.

[426]  P. Ekman,et al.  Pan-Cultural Elements in Facial Displays of Emotion , 1969, Science.

[427]  Michael Argyle,et al.  The central Europe experiment: Looking at persons and looking at objects , 1976 .

[428]  Yaoda Xu.  Revisiting the role of the fusiform face area in visual expertise. , 2005, Cerebral cortex.

[429]  Maja Pantic,et al.  Automatic Analysis of Facial Expressions: The State of the Art , 2000, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[430]  P. Ekman.  Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. , 1972 .

[431]  Jean-Philippe Thiran,et al.  Face detection with boosted Gaussian features , 2007, Pattern Recognit..

[432]  C. Cleeland,et al.  The relationship of mood state to the severity of clinical pain , 1984, Pain.

[433]  Christos Faloutsos,et al.  BRAID: stream mining through group lag correlations , 2005, SIGMOD '05.

[434]  P SumathiC.,et al.  Automatic Facial Expression Analysis A Survey , 2012 .

[435]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Automatic Interpretation and Coding of Face Images Using Flexible Models , 1997, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[436]  J. Bavelas,et al.  "I show how you feel": Motor mimicry as a communicative act. , 1986 .

[437]  D. Matsumoto,et al.  Idiocentric and allocentric differences in emotional expression, experience, and the coherence between expression and experience , 2001 .

[438]  Dirk Heylen,et al.  Searching for Prototypical Facial Feedback Signals , 2007, IVA.

[439]  R. Thayer,et al.  Measurement of Activation through Self-Report , 1967, Psychological reports.

[440]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Robust Active Appearance Models with Iteratively Rescaled Kernels , 2007, BMVC.

[441]  L. E. Bush.  Individual differences multidemensional scaling of adjectives denoting feelings. , 1973, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[442]  Garrison W. Cottrell,et al.  PCA = Gabor for Expression Recognition , 1999 .

[443]  J. Russell,et al.  An approach to environmental psychology , 1974 .

[444]  J. Turner.  Human Emotions: A Sociological Theory , 2007 .

[445]  M. V. von Grünau,et al.  The Detection of Gaze Direction: A Stare-In-The-Crowd Effect , 1995, Perception.

[446]  Harry Shum,et al.  Statistical Learning of Multi-view Face Detection , 2002, ECCV.

[447]  Hong Yan,et al.  Fast algorithm for locating head boundaries , 1994, J. Electronic Imaging.

[448]  Ioannis Pitas,et al.  Facial feature extraction and pose determination , 2000, Pattern Recognit..

[449]  Beat Fasel,et al.  Automati Fa ial Expression Analysis: A Survey , 1999 .

[450]  J. R. Aiello.  A test of equilibrium theory: Visual interaction in relation to orientation, distance and sex of interactants , 1972 .

[451]  Takeo Kanade,et al.  Probabilistic modeling of local appearance and spatial relationships for object recognition , 1998, Proceedings. 1998 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (Cat. No.98CB36231).

[452]  Dana Kulic,et al.  Affective State Estimation for Human–Robot Interaction , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Robotics.

[453]  C. Osgood,et al.  Semantic differential technique : a sourcebook , 1969 .

[454]  A. J. Fridlund,et al.  Hedonic and social determinants of facial displays to odors , 1987 .

[455]  Paul A. Viola,et al.  Robust Real-Time Face Detection , 2001, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[456]  Shaogang Gong,et al.  Composite support vector machines for detection of faces across views and pose estimation , 2002, Image Vis. Comput..

[457]  David C. Gibbon,et al.  Multi-modal system for locating heads and faces , 1996, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[458]  Roddy Cowie,et al.  Emotional speech: Towards a new generation of databases , 2003, Speech Commun..

[459]  Witold Pedrycz,et al.  Face recognition: A study in information fusion using fuzzy integral , 2005, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[460]  J. Davidoff,et al.  Object superiority: a comparison of complete and part probes. , 1990, Acta psychologica.

[461]  Nello Cristianini,et al.  An Introduction to Support Vector Machines and Other Kernel-based Learning Methods , 2000 .

[462]  W. L. Libby,et al.  Eye contact and direction of looking as stable individual differences. , 1970 .

[463]  D. Heylen.  Facial displays, emotional expressions and conversational acts , 2006 .

[464]  J. Sergent,et al.  Functional neuroanatomy of face and object processing. A positron emission tomography study. , 1992, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[465]  Lei Chen,et al.  On The Marriage of Lp-norms and Edit Distance , 2004, VLDB.

[466]  Shirley Dex,et al.  JR 旅客販売総合システム（マルス）における運用及び管理について , 1991 .

[467]  Ashok Samal,et al.  Automatic recognition and analysis of human faces and facial expressions: a survey , 1992, Pattern Recognit..

[468]  M. Argyle,et al.  Gaze and Mutual Gaze , 1994, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[469]  V. Bruce,et al.  Visual Perception: Physiology, Psychology and Ecology , 1985 .

[470]  Sun-Yuan Kung,et al.  Face recognition/detection by probabilistic decision-based neural network , 1997, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks.

[471]  E. Bruce Goldstein,et al.  Encyclopedia of perception , 2010 .

[472]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  Brain Imaging , 2003, Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine.

[473]  Mark H. Johnson,et al.  Biology and Cognitive Development: The Case of Face Recognition , 1993 .

[474]  Simon Baker.  Real-time non-rigid driver head tracking for driver mental state estimation , 2004 .

[475]  A. J. Fridlund.  IS THERE UNIVERSAL RECOGNITION OF EMOTION FROM FACIAL EXPRESSION? A REVIEW OF THE CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES , 1994 .

[476]  S. Langton,et al.  The Mutual Influence of Gaze and Head Orientation in the Analysis of Social Attention Direction , 2000, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. A, Human experimental psychology.

[477]  Marius Malciu,et al.  A robust model-based approach for 3D head tracking in video sequences , 2000, Proceedings Fourth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (Cat. No. PR00580).

[478]  Debin Zhao,et al.  Spatial Histogram Features for Face Detection in Color Images , 2004, PCM.

[479]  Ralph Gross,et al.  Active appearance models with occlusion , 2006, Image Vis. Comput..

[480]  A. Kendon,et al.  The consistency of gaze patterns in social interaction. , 1969, British journal of psychology.

[481]  Steve J. Young,et al.  HMM-based architecture for face identification , 1994, Image Vis. Comput..

[482]  Michael S. Lew,et al.  Information theoretic view-based and modular face detection , 1996, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[483]  Ashok Samal,et al.  Human Face Perception in Degraded Images , 1995, J. Vis. Commun. Image Represent..

[484]  Howard R. Pollio,et al.  The Development of Laughing and Smiling in Nursery School Children. , 1984 .

[485]  Irfan Essa,et al.  Head Tracking Using a Textured Polygonal Model , 1998 .

[486]  J. Laurie Snell,et al.  Markov Random Fields and Their Applications , 1980 .

[487]  Doris Y. Tsao,et al.  Mechanisms of face perception. , 2008, Annual review of neuroscience.

[488]  Marcel Worring,et al.  Face detection by aggregated Bayesian network classifiers , 2001, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[489]  Takeo Kanade,et al.  Feature-point tracking by optical flow discriminates subtle differences in facial expression , 1998, Proceedings Third IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[490]  Shaogang Gong,et al.  Face distributions in similarity space under varying head pose , 2001, Image Vis. Comput..

[491]  Fabian A. Soto,et al.  Asymmetrical interactions in the perception of face identity and emotional expression are not unique to the primate visual system. , 2011, Journal of vision.

[492]  Hakan Cevikalp,et al.  Face recognition based on image sets , 2010, 2010 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[493]  Demetri Terzopoulos,et al.  Analysis and Synthesis of Facial Image Sequences Using Physical and Anatomical Models , 1993, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[494]  Nico H. Frijda,et al.  The understanding of facial expression of emotion. , 1953 .

[495]  Hans Jørgen Andersen,et al.  Physics-based modelling of human skin colour under mixed illuminants , 2001, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[496]  Jon Driver,et al.  Adult's Eyes Trigger Shifts of Visual Attention in Human Infants , 1998 .

[497]  A. Young,et al.  Understanding the recognition of facial identity and facial expression , 2005, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[498]  Thomas S. Huang,et al.  Connected vibrations: a modal analysis approach for non-rigid motion tracking , 1998, Proceedings. 1998 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (Cat. No.98CB36231).

[499]  Doris Y. Tsao,et al.  A Cortical Region Consisting Entirely of Face-Selective Cells , 2006, Science.

[500]  R. E. Kalman,et al.  A New Approach to Linear Filtering and Prediction Problems , 2002 .

[501]  A. Young,et al.  Configurational Information in Face Perception , 1987, Perception.

[502]  Stefano Soatto,et al.  Dynamic Shape and Appearance Models , 2006, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[503]  Federico Girosi,et al.  Training support vector machines: an application to face detection , 1997, Proceedings of IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[504]  Sharath Pankanti,et al.  Absolute head pose estimation from overhead wide-angle cameras , 2003, 2003 IEEE International SOI Conference. Proceedings (Cat. No.03CH37443).

[505]  R. Kraut,et al.  Social and emotional messages of smiling: An ethological approach. , 1979 .

[506]  Gerald Sommer,et al.  Gabor wavelet networks for efficient head pose estimation , 2002, Image Vis. Comput..

[507]  P.V.C. Hough,et al.  Machine Analysis of Bubble Chamber Pictures , 1959 .

[508]  Gwen Littlewort,et al.  Toward Practical Smile Detection , 2009, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[509]  M. Patterson.  Stability of nonverbal immediacy behaviors , 1973 .

[510]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  View-based active appearance models , 2000, Proceedings Fourth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (Cat. No. PR00580).

[511]  Hui Ding,et al.  Querying and mining of time series data: experimental comparison of representations and distance measures , 2008, Proc. VLDB Endow..

[512]  C. Goodwin,et al.  Gesture and coparticipation in the activity of searching for a word , 1986 .

[513]  Aaas News,et al.  Book Reviews , 1893, Buffalo Medical and Surgical Journal.

[514]  Christian Lang,et al.  Facial Communicative Signals: valence recognition in task-oriented human-robot Interaction , 2012 .

[515]  Richard A. Foulds,et al.  Toward robust skin identification in video images , 1996, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[516]  K. Scherer,et al.  Interaction effects of perceived gaze direction and dynamic facial expression: Evidence for appraisal theories of emotion , 2007 .

[517]  Katsuhiko Shirai,et al.  Analysis of head movements and its role in spoken dialogue , 1996, Proceeding of Fourth International Conference on Spoken Language Processing. ICSLP '96.

[518]  Pawan Sinha,et al.  Face Recognition by Humans: Nineteen Results All Computer Vision Researchers Should Know About , 2006, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[519]  Panos M. Pardalos,et al.  On the time series support vector machine using dynamic time warping kernel for brain activity classification , 2008 .

[520]  Chung-Lin Huang,et al.  Facial Expression Recognition Using Model-Based Feature Extraction and Action Parameters Classification , 1997, J. Vis. Commun. Image Represent..

[521]  Matthew Stone,et al.  Specifying and animating facial signals for discourse in embodied conversational agents , 2004, Comput. Animat. Virtual Worlds.

[522]  Jun Ohya,et al.  Spotting segments displaying facial expression from image sequences using HMM , 1998, Proceedings Third IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.