Can a Learning Companion Be Used to Continue Teaching Programming to Children Even During the COVID-19 Pandemic?

Learning how to program in Primary Education has attracted significant research in recent years. It is unclear though how programming environments and languages should be adapted to children to achieve better learning and use, but one trend seems to be the use of Scratch. The question in this paper is what programming environment can be used to continue teaching programming to children who have already been taught Scratch for years. This paper’s proposal is that students aged between 10 and 12 can benefit from interacting with a friendly learning companion using p-code such as Alcody. The hypothesis is that students (aged between 10 and 12) with a knowledge of Scratch will be able to significantly improve their scores by using a learning companion to teach them how to program even during the COVID-19 pandemic. To check the hypothesis, an experiment was carried out during the 2019/2020 academic year with 137 students in Ecuador. A significant improvement in the scores of the students was recorded together with high satisfaction.

[1]  Daniel L. Schwartz,et al.  Teachable Agents and the Protégé Effect: Increasing the Effort Towards Learning , 2009 .

[2]  Mei Yii Lim,et al.  Memory Models for Intelligent Social Companions , 2012, Human-Computer Interaction: The Agency Perspective.

[3]  Diana Pérez,et al.  Can computational thinking be improved by using a methodology based on metaphors and scratch to teach computer programming to children? , 2020, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[4]  Jeffrey Holmes,et al.  Designing agents to support learning by explaining , 2007, Comput. Educ..

[5]  Dietmar Pfahl,et al.  Reporting guidelines for controlled experiments in software engineering , 2005, 2005 International Symposium on Empirical Software Engineering, 2005..

[6]  Mirjana Ivanović,et al.  HAPA: Harvester and Pedagogical Agents in E-learning Environments , 2015, Int. J. Comput. Commun. Control.

[7]  Arthur C. Graesser,et al.  Teaching Tactics and Dialog in AutoTutor , 2001 .

[8]  Lennart E. Nacke,et al.  From game design elements to gamefulness: defining "gamification" , 2011, MindTrek.

[9]  J. Bailenson,et al.  The Proteus Effect: The Effect of Transformed Self-Representation on Behavior , 2007 .

[10]  Izabela Salotti Braga Gago,et al.  Modeling an Educational Multi-Agent System in MaSE , 2009, AMT.

[11]  C. Salvador.  Constructivismo y educación: la concepción constructivista de la enseñanza y del aprendizaje , 1990 .

[12]  H. Chad Lane,et al.  The Effects of a Pedagogical Agent for Informal Science Education on Learner Behaviors and Self-efficacy , 2013, AIED.

[13]  C. Guetl,et al.  Intelligent Pedagogical Agents in immersive virtual learning environments: A review , 2010, The 33rd International Convention MIPRO.

[14]  Eric Rosenbaum,et al.  Scratch: programming for all , 2009, Commun. ACM.

[15]  Michael D. Robinson,et al.  Measures of emotion: A review , 2009, Cognition & emotion.

[16]  Dionisios Vavougios,et al.  The use of LEGO mindstorms in elementary schools , 2017, 2017 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON).

[17]  Petra Kaufmann,et al.  Experimental And Quasi Experimental Designs For Research , 2016 .

[18]  Richard E. Mayer,et al.  Teaching and Learning Computer Programming : Multiple Research Perspectives , 1988 .

[19]  Brian Pagán.  Positive Contributions of Constructivism to Educational Design , 2006 .

[20]  Néna Roa Seïler.  Designing Interaction Strategies for Companions Interacting with Children , 2016 .

[21]  E. Ackermann.  Piaget ’ s Constructivism , Papert ’ s Constructionism : What ’ s the difference ? , 2001 .

[22]  José Miguel Ocaña,et al.  A first proposal of Pedagogic Conversational Agents to develop Computational Thinking in children , 2017, TEEM.

[23]  Javier Gonzalez-Sanchez,et al.  Towards Embedding a Tutoring Companion in the Eclipse Integrated Development Environment , 2018, ITS.

[24]  Jeannette M. Wing.  An introduction to computer science for non-majors using principles of computation , 2007, SIGCSE.

[25]  Tullio Vardanega,et al.  The effects of coding on children's planning and inhibition skills , 2020, Comput. Educ..

[26]  Jill Denner,et al.  The Girl Game Company: Engaging Latina Girls in Information Technology. , 2009 .

[27]  Kenton O'Hara,et al.  Gamification. using game-design elements in non-gaming contexts , 2011, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[28]  Seymour Papert,et al.  Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas , 1981 .

[29]  Zamzami Zainuddin,et al.  The role of gamified e-quizzes on student learning and engagement: An interactive gamification solution for a formative assessment system , 2020, Comput. Educ..

[30]  J A Talingdan,et al.  Assessment of the effectiveness of learning theories using gamified android app in teaching C programming , 2019, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering.

[31]  Realidades, Construcciones y Dilemas: Una revisión filosófica al construccionismo social , 2013 .

[32]  Jacob Cohen.  A Coefficient of Agreement for Nominal Scales , 1960 .

[33]  Kurt Squire,et al.  Video games in education , 2003, Int. J. Intell. Games Simul..

[34]  Chronis Kynigos,et al.  Constructionism: Theory of Learning or Theory of Design? , 2015 .

[35]  Scotty D. Craig,et al.  Animated Pedagogical Agents in Multimedia Educational Environments: Effects of Agent Properties, Picture Features, and Redundancy , 2002 .

[36]  Diana Pérez-Marín,et al.  Conversational Agents and Natural Language Interaction : Techniques and Effective Practices , 2011 .

[37]  H. Chad Lane,et al.  Feedback Specificity and the Learning of Intercultural Communication Skills , 2009, AIED.

[38]  Amy L. Baylor,et al.  The Impact of Pedagogical Agent Image on Affective Outcomes , 2004 .

[39]  Michail N. Giannakos,et al.  Exploring children's learning experience in constructionism-based coding activities through design-based research , 2019, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[40]  K. Majors.  Children’s perceptions of their imaginary companions and the purposes they serve: An exploratory study in the United Kingdom , 2013 .

[41]  Bob Heller,et al.  Animated Pedagogical Agents & Immersive Worlds: Two Worlds Colliding , 2011 .

[42]  Michail N. Giannakos,et al.  Reviewing the affordances of tangible programming languages: Implications for design and practice , 2017, 2017 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON).

[43]  Zoran Budimac,et al.  Different Roles of Agents in Personalized Programming Learning Environment , 2012, ICWL Workshops.

[44]  Esteban Vázquez-Cano,et al.  Visual programming languages integrated across the curriculum in elementary school: A two year case study using "Scratch" in five schools , 2016, Comput. Educ..

[45]  Ben Shneiderman,et al.  Designing for fun: how can we design user interfaces to be more fun? , 2004, INTR.

[46]  Patrícia Augustin Jaques,et al.  Architecture for animation of affective behaviors in pedagogical agents , 2009, Journal of the Brazilian Computer Society.

[47]  Panayiotis Zaphiris,et al.  Introducing New Perspectives in the Use of Social Technologies in Learning: Social Constructionism , 2013, INTERACT.

[48]  Michail N. Giannakos,et al.  How do you feel about learning to code? Investigating the effect of children's attitudes towards coding using eye-tracking , 2018, Int. J. Child Comput. Interact..

[49]  Dominic Kao,et al.  MazeStar: a platform for studying virtual identity and computer science education , 2017, FDG.

[50]  Marina Umaschi Bers,et al.  Computational thinking and tinkering: Exploration of an early childhood robotics curriculum , 2014, Comput. Educ..

[51]  Eunice Polonia,et al.  The role of animated pedagogical agents in scenario -based language e-learning: a case-study , 2007 .

[52]  Pedro Willging,et al.  Enfoque basado en gamificación para el aprendizaje de un lenguaje de programación , 2016 .

[53]  Imran Saleem,et al.  A Review of Gamification for Learning Programming Fundamental , 2019, 2019 International Conference on Innovative Computing (ICIC).

[54]  Marcia T. Mitchell.  An Architecture of an Intelligent Tutoring System to Support Distance Learning , 2007, Comput. Informatics.

[55]  Ana Casali,et al.  Computational thinking: Panorama of the Americas , 2016, 2016 International Symposium on Computers in Education (SIIE).

[56]  Alan Clinton Shaw,et al.  Social construction and the inner city : design environments for social development and urban renewal , 1995 .

[57]  Maria Virvou,et al.  Recognition and Generation of Emotions in Affective e-Learning , 2009, ICSOFT.

[58]  Joel C. Adams,et al.  What do students learn about programming from game, music video, and storytelling projects? , 2012, SIGCSE '12.

[59]  Marina Umaschi Bers,et al.  Coding as a playground: Promoting positive learning experiences in childhood classrooms , 2019, Comput. Educ..

[60]  Brianno Coller,et al.  Video Game-Based Education in Mechanical Engineering: A Look at Student Engagement* , 2009 .

[61]  Justine Cassell,et al.  Virtual peers as partners in storytelling and literacy learning , 2003, J. Comput. Assist. Learn..

[62]  James C. Lester,et al.  Animated Pedagogical Agents: Face-to-Face Interaction in Interactive Learning Environments , 2000 .

[63]  Elliot Soloway,et al.  More than just fun and games: assessing the value of educational video games in the classroom , 2004, CHI EA '04.

[64]  Christopher Cunningham,et al.  Gamification by Design - Implementing Game Mechanics in Web and Mobile Apps , 2011 .

[65]  Christopher Groening,et al.  "Achievement unlocked!" - The impact of digital achievements as a gamification element on motivation and performance , 2019, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[66]  Judy Robertson,et al.  Computer game design: Opportunities for successful learning , 2008, Comput. Educ..

[67]  Milton Schwebel,et al.  Review of Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. , 1979 .

[69]  Tao Dong,et al.  Discovery-based games for learning software , 2012, CHI.

[70]  Gautam Biswas,et al.  Affect Sequences and Learning in Betty's Brain , 2019, LAK.

[71]  Marc Conrad,et al.  Learner Experience in Hybrid Virtual Worlds: Interacting with Pedagogical Agents , 2019, CSEDU.

[72]  Agentes animados personificados en sistemas interactivos: diseño y evaluación , 2011 .

[73]  Claes Wohlin,et al.  Experimentation in Software Engineering , 2000, The Kluwer International Series in Software Engineering.

[74]  Mehmet Toycan,et al.  VB2ALGO: An Educational Reverse Engineering Tool to Enhance High School Students’ Learning Capacities in Programming , 2019 .

[75]  Marina Umaschi Bers.  Beyond computer literacy: supporting youth's positive development through technology. , 2010, New directions for youth development.

[76]  D. Ausubel.  The psychology of meaningful verbal learning. , 1963 .

[77]  Tze Wei Liew,et al.  The Effects of Peer-Like and Expert-Like Pedagogical Agents on Learners' Agent Perceptions, Task-Related Attitudes, and Learning Achievement , 2013, J. Educ. Technol. Soc..

[78]  Raquel Hijón-Neira,et al.  A Methodology Proposal Based on Metaphors to Teach Programming to Children , 2018, IEEE Revista Iberoamericana de Tecnologias del Aprendizaje.

[79]  L. Delbeke.  Quasi-experimentation - design and analysis issues for field settings - cook,td, campbell,dt , 1980 .

[80]  M. Zimmer‐Gembeck,et al.  Empowering and protecting children by enhancing knowledge, skills and well-being: A randomized trial of Learn to BE SAFE with Emmy. , 2016, Child abuse & neglect.

[81]  Beverly Park Woolf,et al.  Affective Gendered Learning Companions , 2009, AIED.

[82]  Björn W. Schuller,et al.  Introduction , 2015, Comput. Speech Lang..

[83]  L. Aiken.  Three Coefficients for Analyzing the Reliability and Validity of Ratings , 1985 .

[84]  Lin Padgham,et al.  “Hello Emily, How Are You Today?” - Personalised Dialogue in a Toy to Engage Children. , 2010, ACL 2010.

[85]  Mario Carretero,et al.  Constructivismo y educación , 1993 .

[86]  W. Shadish,et al.  Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference , 2001 .

[87]  H. Chad Lane,et al.  Intelligent Tutoring Goes to the Museum in the Big City: A Pedagogical Agent for Informal Science Education , 2011, AIED.

[88]  Paul Denny,et al.  The effect of virtual achievements on student engagement , 2013, CHI.

[89]  Yugo Hayashi.  Togetherness: Multiple Pedagogical Conversational Agents as Companions in Collaborative Learning , 2014, Intelligent Tutoring Systems.

[90]  M. Llamas,et al.  Teorías del aprendizaje , 1974 .

[91]  Chi-Jen Lin,et al.  Redefining the learning companion: the past, present, and future of educational agents , 2003, Comput. Educ..

[92]  Yasmin B. Kafai,et al.  Constructionist Gaming: Understanding the Benefits of Making Games for Learning , 2015, Educational psychologist.

[93]  Brian M. Slator,et al.  Virtual Worlds in Large Enrollment Science Classes Significantly Improve Authentic Learning , 2001 .

[94]  D. Campbell.  Factors relevant to the validity of experiments in social settings. , 1957, Psychological bulletin.

[95]  F. J. Langdon,et al.  The Child's Conception of Space , 1967 .

[96]  Julián Moreno,et al.  Digital Competition Game to Improve Programming Skills , 2012, J. Educ. Technol. Soc..

[97]  Michail N. Giannakos,et al.  Empirical studies on the Maker Movement, a promising approach to learning: A literature review , 2017, Entertain. Comput..

[98]  Juneyoung Park,et al.  GAMESIT: A gamified system for information technology training , 2019, Comput. Educ..

[99]  Antonija Mitrovic,et al.  An Animated Pedagogical Agent for SQL-Tutor , 1999 .

[100]  Luis de Marcos,et al.  Gamifying learning experiences: Practical implications and outcomes , 2013, Comput. Educ..

[101]  Ljubomir Jerinic.  Agent-based Approach with Pedagogical Patterns for Learning by Mistake , 2014 .

[102]  James C. Lester,et al.  The persona effect: affective impact of animated pedagogical agents , 1997, CHI.

[103]  G. Clarebout,et al.  Do pedagogical agents make a difference to student motivation and learning , 2011 .

[104]  Y. Kafai.  Playing and Making Games for Learning , 2006, Games Cult..

[105]  J. Piaget.  Psychology and Epistemology: Towards a Theory of Knowledge , 1972 .

[106]  Yasmin B. Kafai,et al.  Connected Code: Why Children Need to Learn Programming , 2014 .

[107]  Cynthia Breazeal,et al.  Semi-Autonomous Robot Avatar as a Medium for Family Communication and Education , 2009, Adv. Robotics.

[108]  Yanghee Kim,et al.  Simulating Instructional Roles through Pedagogical Agents , 2005, Int. J. Artif. Intell. Educ..