Deep Metric Learning via Adaptive Learnable Assessment

In this paper, we propose a deep metric learning via adaptive learnable assessment (DML-ALA) method for image retrieval and clustering, which aims to learn a sample assessment strategy to maximize the generalization of the trained metric. Unlike existing deep metric learning methods that usually utilize a fixed sampling strategy like hard negative mining, we propose a sequence-aware learnable assessor which re-weights each training example to train the metric towards good generalization. We formulate the learning of this assessor as a meta-learning problem, where we employ an episode-based training scheme and update the assessor at each iteration to adapt to the current model status. We construct each episode by sampling two subsets of disjoint labels to simulate the procedure of training and testing and use the performance of one-gradient-updated metric on the validation subset as the meta-objective of the assessor. Experimental results on the widely used CUB-200-2011, Cars196, and Stanford Online Products datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

[1]  Chao Zhang,et al.  Hard-Aware Deeply Cascaded Embedding , 2016, 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[2]  Jiwen Lu,et al.  Deep Embedding Learning With Discriminative Sampling Policy , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[3]  Xudong Lin,et al.  Deep Adversarial Metric Learning , 2018, 2018 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[4]  Jiahuan Zhou,et al.  Efficient Online Local Metric Adaptation via Negative Samples for Person Re-identification , 2017, 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[5]  David Zhang,et al.  Joint Learning of Single-Image and Cross-Image Representations for Person Re-identification , 2016, 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[6]  James Hays,et al.  Generalization in Metric Learning: Should the Embedding Layer Be Embedding Layer? , 2018, 2019 IEEE Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV).

[7]  Horst Possegger,et al.  BIER — Boosting Independent Embeddings Robustly , 2017, 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[8]  Hongtao Lu,et al.  An Adversarial Approach to Hard Triplet Generation , 2018, ECCV.

[9]  Jing Lu,et al.  Sampling Wisely: Deep Image Embedding by Top-K Precision Optimization , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[10]  Oriol Vinyals,et al.  Matching Networks for One Shot Learning , 2016, NIPS.

[11]  Daan Wierstra,et al.  Meta-Learning with Memory-Augmented Neural Networks , 2016, ICML.

[12]  Raquel Urtasun,et al.  Deep Spectral Clustering Learning , 2017, ICML.

[13]  Jonathan Krause,et al.  3D Object Representations for Fine-Grained Categorization , 2013, 2013 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops.

[14]  Gang Wang,et al.  Multi-manifold deep metric learning for image set classification , 2015, 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[15]  Shengcai Liao,et al.  Embedding Deep Metric for Person Re-identification: A Study Against Large Variations , 2016, ECCV.

[16]  Bohyung Han,et al.  Stochastic Class-Based Hard Example Mining for Deep Metric Learning , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[17]  Kihyuk Sohn,et al.  Improved Deep Metric Learning with Multi-class N-pair Loss Objective , 2016, NIPS.

[18]  Jürgen Schmidhuber,et al.  Learning to Forget: Continual Prediction with LSTM , 2000, Neural Computation.

[19]  Stan Sclaroff,et al.  Deep Metric Learning to Rank , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[20]  Nanning Zheng,et al.  Person Re-identification by Multi-Channel Parts-Based CNN with Improved Triplet Loss Function , 2016, 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[21]  Weilin Huang,et al.  Deep Metric Learning with Hierarchical Triplet Loss , 2018, ECCV.

[22]  Kilian Q. Weinberger,et al.  Distance Metric Learning for Large Margin Nearest Neighbor Classification , 2005, NIPS.

[23]  Richard S. Zemel,et al.  Prototypical Networks for Few-shot Learning , 2017, NIPS.

[24]  Jiwen Lu,et al.  Discriminative Deep Metric Learning for Face Verification in the Wild , 2014, 2014 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[25]  Marcin Andrychowicz,et al.  Learning to learn by gradient descent by gradient descent , 2016, NIPS.

[26]  Victor S. Lempitsky,et al.  Learning Deep Embeddings with Histogram Loss , 2016, NIPS.

[27]  Andrew Zisserman,et al.  Very Deep Convolutional Networks for Large-Scale Image Recognition , 2014, ICLR.

[28]  Geoffrey E. Hinton,et al.  ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks , 2012, Commun. ACM.

[29]  Laurens van der Maaten,et al.  Accelerating t-SNE using tree-based algorithms , 2014, J. Mach. Learn. Res..

[30]  Stefanie Jegelka,et al.  Deep Metric Learning via Facility Location , 2016, 2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[31]  Sergey Levine,et al.  Model-Agnostic Meta-Learning for Fast Adaptation of Deep Networks , 2017, ICML.

[32]  Jiwen Lu,et al.  Hardness-Aware Deep Metric Learning , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[33]  Jian Wang,et al.  Deep Metric Learning with Angular Loss , 2017, 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[34]  Matthew R. Scott,et al.  Multi-Similarity Loss With General Pair Weighting for Deep Metric Learning , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[35]  Silvio Savarese,et al.  Deep Metric Learning via Lifted Structured Feature Embedding , 2015, 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[36]  Bhiksha Raj,et al.  SphereFace: Deep Hypersphere Embedding for Face Recognition , 2017, 2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[37]  Cheng Deng,et al.  Deep Asymmetric Metric Learning via Rich Relationship Mining , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[38]  Dacheng Tao,et al.  Deep Metric Learning With Tuplet Margin Loss , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[39]  Misha Denil,et al.  Learning to Learn without Gradient Descent by Gradient Descent , 2016, ICML.

[40]  Kaiqi Huang,et al.  Beyond Triplet Loss: A Deep Quadruplet Network for Person Re-identification , 2017, 2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[41]  Xudong Lin,et al.  Deep Variational Metric Learning , 2018, ECCV.

[42]  Alexander J. Smola,et al.  Sampling Matters in Deep Embedding Learning , 2017, 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[43]  Yair Movshovitz-Attias,et al.  No Fuss Distance Metric Learning Using Proxies , 2017, 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[44]  James Philbin,et al.  FaceNet: A unified embedding for face recognition and clustering , 2015, 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[45]  Dumitru Erhan,et al.  Going deeper with convolutions , 2014, 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[46]  Jian Sun,et al.  Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition , 2015, 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[47]  Gustavo Carneiro,et al.  Smart Mining for Deep Metric Learning , 2017, 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[48]  Dacheng Tao,et al.  Correcting the Triplet Selection Bias for Triplet Loss , 2018, ECCV.

[49]  Michael S. Bernstein,et al.  ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge , 2014, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[50]  Pietro Perona,et al.  The Caltech-UCSD Birds-200-2011 Dataset , 2011 .

[51]  Richa Singh,et al.  On Learning Density Aware Embeddings , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[52]  Chen Huang,et al.  Local Similarity-Aware Deep Feature Embedding , 2016, NIPS.

[53]  Hong Yu,et al.  Meta Networks , 2017, ICML.

[54]  Gustavo Carneiro,et al.  A Theoretically Sound Upper Bound on the Triplet Loss for Improving the Efficiency of Deep Distance Metric Learning , 2019, 2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[55]  Yang Song,et al.  Learning Fine-Grained Image Similarity with Deep Ranking , 2014, 2014 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[56]  Tao Xiang,et al.  Learning to Compare: Relation Network for Few-Shot Learning , 2017, 2018 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[57]  Yann LeCun,et al.  Dimensionality Reduction by Learning an Invariant Mapping , 2006, 2006 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'06).