Pressure-actuated cellular structures

Shape changing structures will play an important role in future engineering designs since rigid structures are usually only optimal for a small range of service conditions. Hence, a concept for reliable and energy-efficient morphing structures that possess a large strength to self-weight ratio would be widely applicable. We propose a novel concept for morphing structures that is inspired by the nastic movement of plants. The idea is to connect prismatic cells with tailored pentagonal and/or hexagonal cross sections such that the resulting cellular structure morphs into given target shapes for certain cell pressures. An efficient algorithm for computing equilibrium shapes as well as cross-sectional geometries is presented. The potential of this novel concept is demonstrated by several examples that range from a flagellum like propulsion device to a morphing aircraft wing.

[1]  Haisheng Xu,et al.  Ferroelectric and electromechanical properties of poly(vinylidene-fluoride–trifluoroethylene–chlorotrifluoroethylene) terpolymer , 2001 .

[2]  J D Humphrey,et al.  Perspectives on biological growth and remodeling. , 2011, Journal of the mechanics and physics of solids.

[3]  Masahiro Irie,et al.  Photoinduced phase transition of gels , 1990 .

[4]  Alastair Johnson,et al.  Sandwich structures with textile-reinforced composite foldcores under impact loads , 2010 .

[5]  M. Kirschner,et al.  Beyond self-assembly: From microtubules to morphogenesis , 1986, Cell.

[6]  John B. Rae,et al.  The Technical Development of Modern Aviation , 1971 .

[7]  D. Korteweg,et al.  Ueber die Veränderung der Form und des Volumens dielectrischer Körper unter Einwirkung electrischer Kräfte , 1880 .

[8]  Christian Hühne,et al.  A modular approach to adaptive structures. , 2014, Bioinspiration & biomimetics.

[9]  Bharat Bhushan,et al.  Multifunctional surface structures of plants: An inspiration for biomimetics , 2009 .

[10]  H. Kawai,et al.  The Piezoelectricity of Poly (vinylidene Fluoride) , 1969 .

[11]  M. Pagitz,et al.  Finite element based form-finding algorithm for tensegrity structures , 2009 .

[12]  Koji Ikuta,et al.  Hydrodynamic Active Catheter with Multi Degrees of Freedom Motion , 2007 .

[13]  A. Alderson,et al.  Auxetic polypropylene fibres:Part 1 - Manufacture and characterisation , 2002 .

[14]  J. E. Chacksfield.  Variable camber airfoils , 1980, The Aeronautical Journal (1968).

[15]  Thomas S. Ray,et al.  Host Tree Location Behavior of a Tropical Vine (Monstera gigantea) by Skototropism , 1975, Science.

[16]  Salvatore Torquato,et al.  Thermal expansion of isotropic multiphase composites and polycrystals , 1997 .

[17]  Nicolae Lobontiu,et al.  Compliant Mechanisms: Design of Flexure Hinges , 2002 .

[18]  Shinichi Hirai,et al.  Micro fabricated tunable bending stiffness devices , 2001 .

[19]  Darwin G. Caldwell,et al.  Adaptive position control of antagonistic pneumatic muscle actuators , 1995, Proceedings 1995 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Human Robot Interaction and Cooperative Robots.

[20]  Brian Mellor,et al.  Multiple material additive manufacturing – Part 1: a review , 2013 .

[21]  D. S. Parker,et al.  The electric warship , 1997 .

[22]  A. Heeger,et al.  Synthesis of electrically conducting organic polymers: halogen derivatives of polyacetylene, (CH)x , 1977 .

[23]  Ole Sigmund,et al.  On the Design of Compliant Mechanisms Using Topology Optimization , 1997 .

[24]  J. Dumais,et al.  “Vegetable Dynamicks”: The Role of Water in Plant Movements , 2012 .

[25]  George E. Totten,et al.  Handbook of Hydraulic Fluid Technology , 2011 .

[26]  A. Kneissl,et al.  Generation, development and degradation of the intrinsic two-way shape memory effect in different alloy systems , 2002 .

[27]  Alison B. Flatau,et al.  A review of magnetostrictive iron–gallium alloys , 2011 .

[28]  A. M. O. Smith,et al.  High-Lift Aerodynamics , 1975 .

[29]  D. Whitaker,et al.  Sphagnum Moss Disperses Spores with Vortex Rings , 2010, Science.

[30]  Dwight L. Whitaker,et al.  The biomechanics of Cornus canadensis stamens are ideal for catapulting pollen vertically , 2007 .

[31]  V. Novák,et al.  Phase stability of CuAlMn shape memory alloys , 2004 .

[32]  Kenneth E. Evans,et al.  Modelling the effects of negative Poisson's ratios in continuous-fibre composites , 1993, Journal of Materials Science.

[33]  Jill Marquis,et al.  The Carnivorous Plants , 1943, Nature.

[34]  Markus Pagitz,et al.  Stability of Lobed Superpressure Balloons During Ascent , 2011 .

[35]  Jacques Dumais,et al.  Biomechanics of Plant Cell Growth , 2010 .

[36]  K. Ullakko.  Magnetically controlled shape memory alloys: A new class of actuator materials , 1996 .

[37]  Roelof Vos.  Mechanics and applications of pressure adaptive honeycomb , 2009 .

[38]  A. Filippone.  Data and performances of selected aircraft and rotorcraft , 2000 .

[39]  Michael O. Harpster,et al.  The Electrification of the Automobile: From Conventional Hybrid, to Plug-in Hybrids, to Extended-Range Electric Vehicles , 2008 .

[40]  Wilhelm Barthlott,et al.  Characterization and Distribution of Water-repellent, Self-cleaning Plant Surfaces , 1997 .

[41]  D. Beebe,et al.  The present and future role of microfluidics in biomedical research , 2014, Nature.

[42]  M. Muller.  A novel classification of planar four-bar linkages and its application to the mechanical analysis of animal systems. , 1996, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[43]  James C. Weaver,et al.  Metamaterials: 3D Soft Metamaterials with Negative Poisson's Ratio (Adv. Mater. 36/2013) , 2013 .

[44]  Ekkehard Ramm,et al.  Displacement dependent pressure loads in nonlinear finite element analyses , 1984 .

[45]  George M. Whitesides,et al.  Towards a soft pneumatic glove for hand rehabilitation , 2013, 2013 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.

[46]  S. Tsai,et al.  Introduction to composite materials , 1980 .

[47]  D. Therriault,et al.  Lightning strike protection of composites , 2014 .

[48]  Christoph Leyens,et al.  Titanium Alloys for Aerospace Applications , 2003 .

[49]  R. J. Stephenson.  The Electrical Researches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F.R.S. , 1938 .

[50]  Peter K. C. Rudolph,et al.  High-Lift Systems on Commercial Subsonic Airliners , 1996 .

[51]  F. G. Hawksworth,et al.  Ballistics of Dwarf Mistletoe Seeds , 1959, Science.

[52]  B. D. Caddock,et al.  Microporous materials with negative Poisson's ratios. II. Mechanisms and interpretation , 1989 .

[53]  Toru Takehisa,et al.  Nanocomposite Hydrogels: A Unique Organic–Inorganic Network Structure with Extraordinary Mechanical, Optical, and Swelling/De‐swelling Properties , 2002 .

[54]  Nam-Hai Chua,et al.  The Plant Cytoskeleton Vacuoles and Cell Walls Make the Difference , 2002, Cell.

[55]  Vitruvius Pollio,et al.  Ten Books on Architecture , 2019 .

[56]  Pierre Zahlen,et al.  Sandwich Structures Technology in Commercial Aviation , 2005 .

[57]  Joseph C. Shope,et al.  Guard cell volume and pressure measured concurrently by confocal microscopy and the cell pressure probe. , 2001, Plant physiology.

[58]  A. Aabloo,et al.  Nanocarbon based ionic actuators—a review , 2013 .

[59]  M Pagitz,et al.  Shape-changing shell-like structures , 2013, Bioinspiration & biomimetics.

[60]  Brian Bolto,et al.  Electronic Conduction in Polymers. III. Electronic Properties of Polypyrrole , 1963 .

[61]  Xiaogang Chen,et al.  Design, Manufacture, and Experimental Analysis of 3D Honeycomb Textile Composites Part I: Design and Manufacture , 2008 .

[62]  Erik Seedhouse,et al.  Bigelow Aerospace: Colonizing Space One Module at a Time , 2014 .

[63]  Daniel Reckzeh.  Aerodynamic design of the high-lift-wing for a Megaliner aircraft , 2003 .

[64]  Jack W. Judy,et al.  Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS): fabrication, design and applications , 2001 .

[65]  Chao Gao,et al.  Multifunctional, Ultra‐Flyweight, Synergistically Assembled Carbon Aerogels , 2013, Advanced materials.

[66]  Tungyang Chen,et al.  Poisson's ratio for anisotropic elastic materials can have no bounds , 2005 .

[67]  Dan M. Ionel,et al.  A review of recent developments in electrical machine design optimization methods with a permanent magnet synchronous motor benchmark study , 2011 .

[68]  F. Migliavacca,et al.  Biomedical Applications of Shape Memory Alloys , 2011 .

[69]  K. Kim,et al.  Ionic polymer-metal composites: I. Fundamentals , 2001 .

[70]  Srinivas Vasista,et al.  DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF A PRESSURE DRIVEN MORPHING WING STRUCTURE , .

[71]  C. R. Calladine,et al.  Theory of Shell Structures , 1983 .

[72]  Daniel A. Fletcher,et al.  Cell mechanics and the cytoskeleton , 2010, Nature.

[73]  M. Labarbera.  Why the Wheels Won't Go , 1983, The American Naturalist.

[74]  Carl T. Herakovich,et al.  Composite Laminates with Negative Through-the-Thickness Poisson's Ratios , 1984 .

[75]  Martin Leary,et al.  A review of shape memory alloy research, applications and opportunities , 2014 .

[76]  N. Kanzawa,et al.  Change in the actin cytoskeleton during seismonastic movement of Mimosa pudica. , 2006, Plant & cell physiology.

[77]  G. A. Smolenskii,et al.  DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION AND LOSSES OF SOME COMPLEX COMPOUNDS , 1958 .

[78]  T. S. Ashton,et al.  Iron and Steel in the Industrial Revolution , 1965 .

[79]  Stephen C. Fry,et al.  The Growing Plant Cell Wall: Chemical and Metabolic Analysis , 2001 .

[80]  U. Meeteren,et al.  Flower opening and closure: a review , 2003 .

[81]  Kenneth E. Evans,et al.  The Design, Matching and Manufacture of Auxetic Carbon Fibre Laminates , 2004 .

[82]  Lothar Gaul,et al.  Boundary element methods for engineers and scientists , 2003 .

[83]  G. K. Ananthasuresh,et al.  Designing compliant mechanisms , 1995 .

[84]  Kendall K. Brown.  Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper Stage Rocket, 1958-2002 , 2005 .

[85]  Michael H. Dickinson,et al.  High-speed pollen release in the white mulberry tree, Morus alba L , 2006, Sexual Plant Reproduction.

[86]  F. Carpi,et al.  Electroactive polymer actuators as artificial muscles: are they ready for bioinspired applications? , 2011, Bioinspiration & biomimetics.

[87]  Achille Messac,et al.  Study of a Honeycomb-Type Rigidified Inflatable Structure for Housing , 2004 .

[88]  J.A. Ortega,et al.  Moving towards a more electric aircraft , 2007, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine.

[89]  D.H. Plattenburg.  Pneumatic actuators: a comparison of energy-to-mass ratio's , 2005, 9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, 2005. ICORR 2005..

[90]  T. Kurokawa,et al.  Double‐Network Hydrogels with Extremely High Mechanical Strength , 2003 .

[91]  A. Syed,et al.  Review: Polyaniline-A novel polymeric material. , 1991, Talanta.

[92]  K. Pister,et al.  Single mask, large force, and large displacement electrostatic linear inchworm motors , 2001, Technical Digest. MEMS 2001. 14th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (Cat. No.01CH37090).

[93]  E. Süli,et al.  Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations , 2014 .

[94]  R. Baughman.  Conducting polymer artificial muscles , 1996 .

[95]  David Cebon,et al.  Materials Selection in Mechanical Design , 1992 .

[96]  S. Kawamura,et al.  Development of passive elements with variable mechanical impedance for wearable robots , 2002, Proceedings 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.02CH37292).

[97]  Toyoichi Tanaka,et al.  Collapse of Gels in an Electric Field , 1982, Science.

[98]  N. C. MacDonald,et al.  Fabrication of high frequency two-dimensional nanoactuators for scanned probe devices , 1992 .

[99]  C. Dawson,et al.  How pine cones open , 1997, Nature.

[100]  Peter L. Jakab.  Wood to Metal: The Structural Origins of the Modern Airplane , 1999 .

[101]  Farhan Gandhi,et al.  Zero-v Cellular Honeycomb Flexible Skins for One-Dimensional Wing Morphing , 2007 .

[102]  J. Madden,et al.  Polymer artificial muscles , 2007 .

[103]  C. Robertson McClung,et al.  Plant Circadian Rhythms , 2006, The Plant Cell Online.

[104]  T. Eisner.  Leaf folding in a sensitive plant: A defensive thorn-exposure mechanism? , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[105]  Nikolaus Correll,et al.  Soft Autonomous Materials - Using Active Elasticity and Embedded Distributed Computation , 2010, ISER.

[106]  J. P. Joule Esq.,et al.  XVII. On the effects of magnetism upon the dimensions of iron and steel bars , 1847 .

[107]  Kyoung Kwan Ahn,et al.  Nonlinear PID control to improve the control performance of 2 axes pneumatic artificial muscle manipulator using neural network , 2006 .

[108]  Christina H. Chen,et al.  Magnetic Materials and Devices for the 21st Century: Stronger, Lighter, and More Energy Efficient , 2011, Advanced materials.

[109]  Markus Pagitz,et al.  Simulation of tension fields with in-plane rotational degrees of freedom , 2010 .

[110]  Robert Puers,et al.  Pull-in voltage analysis of electrostatically actuated beam structures with fixed–fixed and fixed–free end conditions , 2002 .

[111]  R. Lakes,et al.  Poisson's ratio and modern materials , 2011, Nature Materials.

[112]  James R. Ehleringer,et al.  Pubescence and leaf spectral characteristics in a desert shrub, Encelia farinosa , 2004, Oecologia.

[113]  H. Liu,et al.  A multiscale co-rotational method for geometrically nonlinear shape morphing of 2D fluid actuated cellular structures , 2014 .

[114]  Yoshisada Murotsu,et al.  The Peculiar Behavior of the Poisson's Ratio of Laminated Fibrous Composites , 1989 .

[115]  M. Burrows,et al.  Interacting Gears Synchronize Propulsive Leg Movements in a Jumping Insect , 2013, Science.

[116]  T. Lim.  Auxetic Materials and Structures , 2014 .

[117]  Paul Waide,et al.  Energy-Efficiency Policy Opportunities for Electric Motor-Driven Systems , 2011 .

[118]  Wilton P. Lock,et al.  Variable-camber systems integration and operational performance of the AFTI/F-111 mission adaptive wing , 1992 .

[119]  Z. Wei,et al.  Shape-memory materials and hybrid composites for smart systems Part I Shape-memory materials , 2022 .

[120]  Hideyuki Tsukagoshi,et al.  Active Hose: an artificial elephant's nose with maneuverability for rescue operation , 2001, Proceedings 2001 ICRA. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.01CH37164).

[121]  D. C. Jenn,et al.  Radar and laser cross section engineering , 2005 .

[122]  J. Diamond.  Transport mechanisms: The biology of the wheel , 1983, Nature.

[123]  S. Evoy,et al.  A review of piezoelectric polymers as functional materials for electromechanical transducers , 2014 .

[124]  Andrew Parr,et al.  Hydraulics and Pneumatics , 1999 .

[125]  Xander M. Van Der Burgt,et al.  Explosive seed dispersal of the rainforest tree Tetraberlinia moreliana (Leguminosae – Caesalpinioideae) in Gabon , 1997, Journal of Tropical Ecology.

[126]  Rob Cuscaden.  Air-Supported Structures--A Faster Building for Less Cost. , 1976 .

[127]  Ching-Ping Chou,et al.  Static and dynamic characteristics of McKibben pneumatic artificial muscles , 1994, Proceedings of the 1994 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[128]  Dimitrios Niarchos,et al.  Magnetic MEMS: key issues and some applications , 2003 .

[129]  O. Wichterle,et al.  Hydrophilic Gels for Biological Use , 1960, Nature.

[130]  J. Lv,et al.  A New Multiscale Computational Method for Mechanical Analysis of Closed Liquid Cell Materials , 2010 .

[131]  Anirban Chaudhuri,et al.  Compact hybrid electrohydraulic actuators using smart materials: A review , 2012 .

[132]  Klas Hjort,et al.  Review on miniaturized paraffin phase change actuators, valves, and pumps , 2014 .

[133]  S. Pellegrino,et al.  Maximally stable lobed balloons , 2010 .

[134]  A. Sievers,et al.  Proton Efflux from the Outer Layer of the Peduncle of Tulip in Gravitropism and Circumnutation , 1995 .

[135]  J. V. Gilfrich,et al.  Effect of Low‐Temperature Phase Changes on the Mechanical Properties of Alloys near Composition TiNi , 1963 .

[136]  L. Brinson.  One-Dimensional Constitutive Behavior of Shape Memory Alloys: Thermomechanical Derivation with Non-Constant Material Functions and Redefined Martensite Internal Variable , 1993 .

[137]  L. N. López de Lacalle,et al.  Advanced cutting conditions for the milling of aeronautical alloys , 2000 .

[138]  Andres F. Arrieta,et al.  Variable stiffness material and structural concepts for morphing applications , 2013 .

[139]  W. Huang.  On the selection of shape memory alloys for actuators , 2002 .

[140]  O. Sigmund.  Tailoring materials with prescribed elastic properties , 1995 .

[141]  Kurt Maute,et al.  Multiscale Design of Vascular Plates , 2005 .

[142]  Shean Juinn Chiou,et al.  Automated conceptual design of mechanisms , 1999 .

[143]  Terunobu Akiyama,et al.  Controlled stepwise motion in polysilicon microstructures , 1993 .

[144]  Remco I. Leine,et al.  Shape Optimization of Compliant Pressure Actuated Cellular Structures , 2014, 1403.2197.

[145]  E. J. Ambrose,et al.  CELL MOVEMENTS. , 1965, Endeavour.

[146]  L. Gibson.  The hierarchical structure and mechanics of plant materials , 2012, Journal of The Royal Society Interface.

[147]  G.-M. Rotaru,et al.  Relaxing with relaxors: a review of relaxor ferroelectrics , 2011 .

[148]  Kinam Park,et al.  Synthesis of superporous hydrogels: hydrogels with fast swelling and superabsorbent properties. , 1999, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[149]  Ion Boldea,et al.  Linear electric actuators and generators , 1997, 1997 IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference Record.

[150]  Seizo Miyata,et al.  Piezoelectricity Revealed in the Copolymer of Vinylidene Cyanide and Vinyl Acetate , 1980 .

[151]  Philip Ball,et al.  Life's lessons in design , 2001, Nature.

[152]  Michael F. Ashby,et al.  The selection of mechanical actuators based on performance indices , 1997, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[153]  Stephen Inwood,et al.  The Forgotten Genius : The Biography of Robert Hooke, 1635-1703 , 2004 .

[154]  Jacobo. Krauel.  Inflatable Art, Architecture & Design , 2014 .

[155]  Norman M. Wereley,et al.  Design and Fabrication of a Passive 1D Morphing Aircraft Skin , 2010 .

[156]  Simon D. Guest,et al.  Morphing Multistable Textured Shells , 2009 .

[157]  Kenneth E. Evans,et al.  The manufacture and characterisation of a novel, low modulus, negative Poisson’s ratio composite , 2009 .

[158]  Dragan Damjanovic,et al.  High‐Strain Lead‐free Antiferroelectric Electrostrictors , 2009 .

[159]  Dongpu Cao,et al.  Editors’ perspectives: road vehicle suspension design, dynamics, and control , 2011 .

[160]  Andrew Alderson,et al.  Single fibre pullout tests on auxetic polymeric fibres , 2005 .

[161]  E Stanewsky,et al.  Adaptive wing and flow control technology , 2001 .

[162]  Sergio Pellegrino,et al.  Buckling pressure of “pumpkin” balloons , 2007 .

[163]  M. D. Swaine,et al.  EXPLOSIVE SEED DISPERSAL IN HURA CREPITANS L. (EUPHORBIACEAE) , 1977 .

[164]  H. Berg,et al.  Bacteria Swim by Rotating their Flagellar Filaments , 1973, Nature.

[165]  J. Seferis,et al.  Evaluation of the in-service performance behavior of honeycomb composite sandwich structures , 1999 .

[166]  J. Friml,et al.  Auxin transport - shaping the plant. , 2003, Current opinion in plant biology.

[167]  A. Ampere,et al.  Théorie mathématique des phénomènes électro-dynamiques uniquement déduite de l'expérience , 1958 .

[168]  Zdobyslaw Goraj,et al.  AN OVERVIEW OF THE DEICING AND ANTIICING TECHNOLOGIES WITH PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE , 2004 .

[169]  A. Ellison,et al.  Nutrient limitation and stoichiometry of carnivorous plants. , 2006, Plant biology.

[170]  Robert D Deegan,et al.  Finessing the fracture energy barrier in ballistic seed dispersal , 2012, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[171]  George K. Nikas,et al.  Eighty years of research on hydraulic reciprocating seals: Review of tribological studies and related topics since the 1930s , 2010 .

[172]  Donald J. Leo,et al.  Bioenergetics and mechanical actuation analysis with membrane transport experiments for use in biomimetic nastic structures , 2006 .

[173]  M. Wuttig,et al.  Combinatorial search of thermoelastic shape-memory alloys with extremely small hysteresis width , 2006, Nature materials.

[174]  William C. Tang,et al.  Electrostatic-comb drive of lateral polysilicon resonators , 1990 .

[175]  Karl Iagnemma,et al.  Design of a tubular snake-like manipulator with stiffening capability by layer jamming , 2012, 2012 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.

[176]  David Richeson.  Euler's Gem: The Polyhedron Formula and the Birth of Topology , 2008 .

[177]  Richard A. Dolbeer,et al.  Wildlife Strikes to Civil Aircraft in the United States 1990-2007 , 2008 .

[178]  Marika Hayashi,et al.  The mechanics of explosive seed dispersal in orange jewelweed (Impatiens capensis) , 2009, Journal of experimental botany.

[179]  Eric Abel,et al.  A comparison of methods for the training of NiTi two-way shape memory alloy , 2007 .

[180]  M. Pagitz,et al.  Symmetry transformation matrices for structures , 2007, Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[181]  Kinji Asaka,et al.  Polymer electrolyte actuator with gold electrodes , 1999, Smart Structures.

[182]  M. Ashby,et al.  Micro-architectured materials: past, present and future , 2010, Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[183]  Jiadong Zang,et al.  Giant Electric-Field-Induced Strains in Lead-Free Ceramics for Actuator Applications - Status and Perspective , 2013 .

[184]  Larry J. Hornbeck,et al.  Deformable-Mirror Spatial Light Modulators , 1990, Optics & Photonics.

[185]  Lisa Mauck Weiland,et al.  High Energy Density Nastic Materials: Parameters for Tailoring Active Response , 2009 .

[186]  Ekkehard Ramm,et al.  A General Finite Element Approach to the form Finding of Tensile Structures by the Updated Reference Strategy , 1999 .

[187]  Mike Wilson,et al.  Festo drives automation forwards , 2011 .

[188]  B. Satish,et al.  Piezoelectric properties of ferroelectric PZT-polymer composites , 2001 .

[189]  A. H. Brown,et al.  Circumnutations: From Darwin to Space Flights , 1993, Plant physiology.

[190]  Y. Nemirovsky,et al.  A methodology and model for the pull-in parameters of magnetostatic actuators , 2005, Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems.

[191]  Thomas C. Hales,et al.  The Honeycomb Conjecture , 1999, Discret. Comput. Geom..

[192]  H. G. Allen.  Analysis and design of structural sandwich panels , 1969 .

[193]  Takuji Kobori,et al.  Seismic response controlled structure with Active Variable Stiffness system , 1993 .

[194]  Austin Hughes.  Electric Motors and Drives , 1990 .

[195]  A. Rinzler,et al.  Carbon nanotube actuators , 1999, Science.

[196]  K. Evans,et al.  Auxetic Materials : Functional Materials and Structures from Lateral Thinking! , 2000 .

[197]  Abhinav Saxena,et al.  A diagnostic approach for electro-mechanical actuators in aerospace systems , 2009, 2009 IEEE Aerospace conference.

[198]  Kenji Uchino,et al.  Piezoelectric Actuators and Ultrasonic Motors , 1996 .

[199]  D. Wirtz,et al.  Reversible hydrogels from self-assembling artificial proteins. , 1998, Science.

[200]  M. Stolarz.  Circumnutation as a visible plant action and reaction , 2009, Plant signaling & behavior.

[201]  Dennis Ross Poulter.  Nuclear Engineering. (Book Reviews: The Design of Gas-Cooled Graphite-Moderated Reactors) , 1963 .

[202]  Peter W. Merlin.  Design and Development of the Blackbird: Challenges and Lessons Learned , 2009 .

[203]  Michael Philen,et al.  Variable Stiffness Structures Utilizing Fluidic Flexible Matrix Composites , 2009 .

[204]  Remco I. Leine,et al.  Continuum Model for Pressure Actuated Cellular Structures , 2014 .

[205]  Michael A Meller,et al.  Hydraulic artificial muscles , 2012 .

[206]  Susan Goldhor,et al.  Micrographia , 1963, The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine.

[207]  O. Sigmund.  Materials with prescribed constitutive parameters: An inverse homogenization problem , 1994 .

[208]  Ted Belytschko,et al.  Multiscale Methods in Computational Mechanics , 2010 .

[209]  Franz Reuleaux,et al.  The Kinematics of Machinery , 2016, Nature.

[210]  Thierry Keller,et al.  Variable Stiffness Structure for limb attachment , 2011, 2011 IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics.

[211]  A. C. Lopes,et al.  Electroactive phases of poly(vinylidene fluoride) : determination, processing and applications , 2014 .

[212]  Peter Fratzl,et al.  Origami-like unfolding of hydro-actuated ice plant seed capsules. , 2011, Nature communications.

[213]  Markus Pagitz,et al.  The future of scientific ballooning , 2007, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[214]  A. Heckmann,et al.  Structural and functional fatigue of NiTi shape memory alloys , 2004 .

[215]  D. W. Bechert,et al.  Fluid Mechanics of Biological Surfaces and their Technological Application , 2000, Naturwissenschaften.

[216]  Peter Hine,et al.  Negative Poisson's ratios in angle-ply laminates , 1997 .

[217]  R. Elbaum,et al.  The Role of Wheat Awns in the Seed Dispersal Unit , 2007, Science.

[218]  G. Milton.  Composite materials with poisson's ratios close to — 1 , 1992 .

[219]  P. Curie,et al.  Phénomènes électriques des cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées , 1882 .

[220]  M. Ashby,et al.  The mechanics of two-dimensional cellular materials , 1982, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[221]  D. Whitaker,et al.  Botany: A record-breaking pollen catapult , 2005, Nature.

[222]  F. C. Campbell.  Manufacturing technology for aerospace structural materials , 2006 .

[223]  C. Gauss,et al.  General investigations of curved surfaces , 1902 .

[224]  Delfeena Eapen,et al.  Hydrotropism: root growth responses to water. , 2005, Trends in plant science.

[225]  Arne. Olander.  AN ELECTROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF SOLID CADMIUM-GOLD ALLOYS , 1932 .

[226]  Dirk Lefeber,et al.  Pneumatic artificial muscles: Actuators for robotics and automation , 2002 .

[227]  D. Weaire,et al.  A counter-example to Kelvin's conjecture on minimal surfaces , 1994 .

[228]  R. Lakes,et al.  Properties of a chiral honeycomb with a poisson's ratio of — 1 , 1997 .

[229]  C Menon,et al.  Active articulation for future space applications inspired by the hydraulic system of spiders , 2006, Bioinspiration & biomimetics.

[230]  Airbus,et al.  THE A 380 FLIGHT CONTROL ELECTROHYDROSTATIC ACTUATORS , ACHIEVEMENTS AND LESSONS LEARNT , 2006 .

[231]  Toyoichi Tanaka.  Collapse of Gels and the Critical Endpoint , 1978 .

[232]  Wade J. Pulliam,et al.  Historical Perspective on Inflatable Wing Structures , 2009 .

[233]  Baohua Ji,et al.  Mechanical properties of nanostructure of biological materials , 2004 .

[234]  K A Arndt,et al.  Cutting edge , 2012, Archives of dermatology.

[235]  A. Olabi,et al.  Design and application of magnetostrictive materials , 2008 .

[236]  W. Voigt,et al.  Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik , 1966 .

[237]  M. Ashby,et al.  The structure and mechanics of cork , 1981, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[238]  Bernie F. Carpenter,et al.  Shape-memory-actuated compliant control surface , 1993, Smart Structures.

[239]  Richard Weinkamer,et al.  Nature’s hierarchical materials , 2007 .

[240]  A. Bowling,et al.  The mechanism for explosive seed dispersal in Cardamine hirsuta (Brassicaceae). , 2011, American journal of botany.

[241]  L. Mahadevan,et al.  How the Venus flytrap snaps , 2005, Nature.

[242]  K. Bertoldi,et al.  Negative Poisson's Ratio Behavior Induced by an Elastic Instability , 2010, Advanced materials.

[243]  J. Roncali.  Conjugated poly(thiophenes): synthesis, functionalization, and applications , 1992 .

[244]  Jonathan B. Hopkins,et al.  Corrigendum to Synthesis of multi-degree of freedom, parallel flexure system concepts via Freedom and Constraint Topology (FACT)—Part I: Principles , 2010 .

[245]  Ole Sigmund,et al.  Design of multiphysics actuators using topology optimization - Part I: One-material structures , 2001 .

[246]  Nancy E. Stamp,et al.  Self-burial behaviour of Erodium cicutarium seeds. , 1984 .

[247]  D. Cosgrove.  Growth of the plant cell wall , 2005, Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology.

[248]  Andrea J. Liu,et al.  Nonlinear dynamics: Jamming is not just cool any more , 1998, Nature.

[249]  M. Renton,et al.  Experience teaches plants to learn faster and forget slower in environments where it matters , 2014, Oecologia.

[250]  Tomohiro Yokozeki,et al.  Mechanical properties of corrugated composites for candidate materials of flexible wing structures , 2006 .

[251]  Andres F. Arrieta,et al.  Performance of a Three-Dimensional Morphing Wing and Comparison with a Conventional Wing , 2014 .

[252]  Kevin D Potter,et al.  Composite corrugated structures for morphing wing skin applications , 2010 .

[253]  O. C. Zienkiewicz,et al.  The Finite Element Method for Solid and Structural Mechanics , 2013 .

[254]  Kenneth J. Waldron,et al.  Kinematics, dynamics, and design of machinery , 1998 .

[255]  R. Morillon,et al.  Rapid movements of plants organs require solute-water cotransporters or contractile proteins. , 2001, Plant physiology.