Advanced Fault Diagnosis for Lithium-Ion Battery Systems: A Review of Fault Mechanisms, Fault Features, and Diagnosis Procedures

Lithium (Li)-ion batteries have become the mainstream energy storage solution for many applications, such as electric vehicles (EVs) and smart grids. However, various faults in a Li-ion battery system (LIBS) can potentially cause performance degradation and severe safety issues. Developing advanced fault diagnosis technologies is becoming increasingly critical for the safe operation of LIBS. This article provides a comprehensive review of the mechanisms, features, and diagnosis of various faults in LIBSs, including internal battery faults, sensor faults, and actuator faults. Future trends in the development of fault diagnosis technologies for a safer battery system are presented and discussed.

[1]  D. Abraham,et al.  Diagnostic examination of thermally abused high-power lithium-ion cells , 2006 .

[2]  Paul M. Frank,et al.  Fault diagnosis in dynamic systems: theory and application , 1989 .

[3]  Thomas Hanemann,et al.  Preventing Li-ion cell explosion during thermal runaway with reduced pressure , 2017 .

[4]  Qingsong Wang,et al.  Thermal runaway caused fire and explosion of lithium ion battery , 2012 .

[5]  Hu Zechun,et al.  Present Status and Development Trend of Batteries for Electric Vehicles , 2011 .

[6]  Susan L. Rose-Pehrsson,et al.  Physical and chemical analysis of lithium-ion battery cell-to-cell failure events inside custom fire chamber , 2015 .

[7]  Hongwen He,et al.  Model-based Sensor Fault Diagnosis of a Lithium-ion Battery in Electric Vehicles , 2015 .

[8]  Sohel Anwar,et al.  Electrochemical Model Based Fault Diagnosis of Li-Ion Battery Using Fuzzy Logic , 2014 .

[9]  Qi Zhang,et al.  A new approach for fault diagnosis in power systems based on rough set theory , 1997 .

[10]  Pengjian Zuo,et al.  Capacity fading mechanism during long-term cycling of over-discharged LiCoO2/mesocarbon microbeads battery , 2015 .

[11]  Ralph E. White,et al.  Mathematical modeling of lithium-ion and nickel battery systems , 2002 .

[12]  Afshin Izadian,et al.  Adaptive Nonlinear Model-Based Fault Diagnosis of Li-Ion Batteries , 2015, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.

[13]  Minggao Ouyang,et al.  Detecting the internal short circuit in large-format lithium-ion battery using model-based fault-diagnosis algorithm , 2018, Journal of Energy Storage.

[14]  Zhenpo Wang,et al.  Voltage fault diagnosis and prognosis of battery systems based on entropy and Z-score for electric vehicles , 2017 .

[15]  Doron Aurbach,et al.  A short review of failure mechanisms of lithium metal and lithiated graphite anodes in liquid electrolyte solutions , 2002 .

[16]  Yunlong Shang,et al.  A multi-fault diagnostic method based on an interleaved voltage measurement topology for series connected battery packs , 2019, Journal of Power Sources.

[17]  H. Odendaal,et al.  Actuator fault detection and isolation: An optimised parity space approach , 2014 .

[18]  T. Hamada,et al.  E.M.F. drift and inhomogeneity of type K thermocouples , 2004, SICE 2004 Annual Conference.

[19]  Paul M. Frank,et al.  Fault diagnosis in dynamic systems using analytical and knowledge-based redundancy: A survey and some new results , 1990, Autom..

[20]  Yaguo Lei,et al.  Intelligent Fault Diagnosis and Remaining Useful Life Prediction of Rotating Machinery , 2016 .

[21]  Myoungho Kim,et al.  Outlier mining-based fault diagnosis for multiceli lithium-ion batteries using a low-priced microcontroller , 2018, 2018 IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC).

[22]  Pierluigi Pisu,et al.  Model-based real-time thermal fault diagnosis of Lithium-ion batteries , 2016 .

[23]  Ron J. Patton,et al.  Fault-Tolerant Control: The 1997 Situation , 1997 .

[24]  Xuning Feng,et al.  Online internal short circuit detection for a large format lithium ion battery , 2016 .

[25]  Xuning Feng,et al.  Analysis on the Fault Features for Internal Short Circuit Detection Using an Electrochemical-Thermal Coupled Model , 2018 .

[26]  Zhenpo Wang,et al.  A Novel Fault Diagnosis Method for Lithium-Ion Battery Packs of Electric Vehicles , 2018 .

[27]  Andreas Jossen,et al.  Methods for state-of-charge determination and their applications , 2001 .

[28]  H. Zheng,et al.  GEAR FAULT DIAGNOSIS BASED ON CONTINUOUS WAVELET TRANSFORM , 2002 .

[29]  Xuning Feng,et al.  Characterization of penetration induced thermal runaway propagation process within a large format lithium ion battery module , 2015 .

[30]  John G. Webster,et al.  The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook , 1998 .

[31]  Bo-Suk Yang,et al.  Support vector machine in machine condition monitoring and fault diagnosis , 2007 .

[32]  Hongwen He,et al.  Fault Detection and Isolation for Lithium-Ion Battery System Using Structural Analysis and Sequential Residual Generation , 2014 .

[33]  Rolf Isermann,et al.  Process fault detection based on modeling and estimation methods - A survey , 1984, Autom..

[34]  Ralph E. White,et al.  Capacity Fade Mechanisms and Side Reactions in Lithium‐Ion Batteries , 1998 .

[35]  Bing Xia,et al.  A fault-tolerant voltage measurement method for series connected battery packs , 2016 .

[36]  A. Pesaran,et al.  A representative-sandwich model for simultaneously coupled mechanical-electrical-thermal simulation of a lithium-ion cell under quasi-static indentation tests , 2015 .

[37]  Ahmad Pesaran,et al.  Fail-safe design for large capacity lithium-ion battery systems , 2012 .

[38]  Manasi Das,et al.  Fault Detection and Isolation using an Adaptive Unscented Kalman Filter , 2014 .

[39]  Jing Wang,et al.  A Method to Simultaneously Detect the Current Sensor Fault and Estimate the State of Energy for Batteries in Electric Vehicles , 2016, Sensors.

[40]  Truong Q. Nguyen,et al.  The improved interleaved voltage measurement method for series connected battery packs , 2016 .

[41]  Taesic Kim,et al.  Cloud-Based Battery Condition Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis Platform for Large-Scale Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems , 2018 .

[42]  Marcel Held,et al.  Safe cell, safe battery? Battery fire investigation using FMEA, FTA and practical experiments , 2016, Microelectron. Reliab..

[43]  Qingsong Wang,et al.  Combustion behavior of lithium iron phosphate battery induced by external heat radiation , 2017 .

[44]  Erik Frisk,et al.  Sensor Placement for Fault Diagnosis , 2008, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and Humans.

[45]  Jianqiu Li,et al.  Lithium ion battery pack power fade fault identification based on Shannon entropy in electric vehicles , 2013 .

[46]  Matthieu Dubarry,et al.  Identify capacity fading mechanism in a commercial LiFePO4 cell , 2009 .

[47]  M. Dubarry,et al.  Cell degradation in commercial LiFePO4 cells with high-power and high-energy designs , 2014 .

[48]  Michael Pecht,et al.  Lessons Learned from the 787 Dreamliner Issue on Lithium-Ion Battery Reliability , 2013 .

[49]  Ron J. Patton,et al.  Fault detection and diagnosis in aerospace systems using analytical redundancy , 1991 .

[50]  Ralph E. White,et al.  Development of First Principles Capacity Fade Model for Li-Ion Cells , 2004 .

[51]  Lijun Wu,et al.  Combining In Situ Synchrotron X‐Ray Diffraction and Absorption Techniques with Transmission Electron Microscopy to Study the Origin of Thermal Instability in Overcharged Cathode Materials for Lithium‐Ion Batteries , 2013 .

[52]  Erik Frisk,et al.  A Greedy Approach for Selection of Residual Generators , 2011 .

[53]  Minggao Ouyang,et al.  Thermal runaway features of large format prismatic lithium ion battery using extended volume accelerating rate calorimetry , 2014 .

[54]  Gyogwon Koo,et al.  Detection of Internal Short Circuit in Lithium Ion Battery Using Model-Based Switching Model Method , 2017 .

[55]  M. Elisabeth Paté-Cornell,et al.  Fault Trees vs. Event Trees in Reliability Analysis , 1984 .

[56]  Chunbo Zhu,et al.  Online Diagnosis for the Capacity Fade Fault of a Parallel-Connected Lithium Ion Battery Group , 2016 .

[57]  Sunwon Park,et al.  FAULT-DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS VIA PARAMETER-ESTIMATION IN LUMPED DYNAMIC-SYSTEMS , 1983 .

[58]  Hongwen He,et al.  Adaptive Extended Kalman Filter Based Fault Detection and Isolation for a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack , 2015 .

[59]  Gunther Reinhart,et al.  Method for Classification of Battery Separator Defects Using Optical Inspection , 2016 .

[60]  Jing Xiong,et al.  Failure detection for over-discharged Li-ion batteries , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference.

[61]  Xiaosong Hu,et al.  An enhanced multi-state estimation hierarchy for advanced lithium-ion battery management , 2020 .

[62]  Chunbo Zhu,et al.  A review on fault mechanism and diagnosis approach for Li-Ion batteries , 2015 .

[63]  Yi Ding,et al.  Online Parameterization of Lumped Thermal Dynamics in Cylindrical Lithium Ion Batteries for Core Temperature Estimation and Health Monitoring , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology.

[64]  M. Doyle,et al.  Simulation and Optimization of the Dual Lithium Ion Insertion Cell , 1994 .

[65]  Jay Lee,et al.  Review and recent advances in battery health monitoring and prognostics technologies for electric vehicle (EV) safety and mobility , 2014 .

[66]  S. Lo,et al.  Thermal behavior and failure mechanism of lithium ion cells during overcharge under adiabatic conditions , 2016 .

[67]  Rolf Isermann,et al.  Model-based fault-detection and diagnosis - status and applications , 2004, Annu. Rev. Control..

[68]  Guy Marlair,et al.  Safety focused modeling of lithium-ion batteries: A review , 2016 .

[69]  Kevin L. Gering,et al.  Differential voltage analyses of high-power lithium-ion cells: 2. Applications , 2005 .

[70]  P. Ramadass,et al.  Analysis of internal short-circuit in a lithium ion cell , 2009 .

[71]  M. Wohlfahrt‐Mehrens,et al.  Ageing mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries , 2005 .

[72]  Liu Ya.  Evaluation on fault diagnosis methods of dynamic system , 2003 .

[73]  Inseok Hwang,et al.  A Survey of Fault Detection, Isolation, and Reconfiguration Methods , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology.

[74]  Jie Liu,et al.  Simulation and experimental study on lithium ion battery short circuit , 2016 .

[75]  Qingsong Wang,et al.  Failure mechanism of the lithium ion battery during nail penetration , 2018, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer.

[76]  Junghui Chen,et al.  Dynamic process fault monitoring based on neural network and PCA , 2002 .

[77]  Hongwen He,et al.  Structural Analysis Based Fault Detection and Isolation Applied for A Lithium-Ion Battery Pack , 2015 .

[78]  F. Huet.  A review of impedance measurements for determination of the state-of-charge or state-of-health of secondary batteries , 1998 .

[79]  Lei Yao,et al.  Fault detection of the connection of lithium-ion power batteries based on entropy for electric vehicles , 2015 .

[80]  Marcel Staroswiecki,et al.  Analytical redundancy relations for fault detection and isolation in algebraic dynamic systems , 2001, Autom..

[81]  Minggao Ouyang,et al.  A 3D thermal runaway propagation model for a large format lithium ion battery module , 2016 .

[82]  Michel Kinnaert.  Design of redundancy relations for failure detection and isolation by constrained optimization , 1993 .

[83]  Wen Chen,et al.  Simultaneous Fault Isolation and Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries via Synthesized Design of Luenberger and Learning Observers , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology.

[84]  Xuning Feng,et al.  Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: A review , 2018 .

[85]  Michael Pecht,et al.  A failure modes, mechanisms, and effects analysis (FMMEA) of lithium-ion batteries , 2015 .

[86]  Jianqiu Li,et al.  Fault diagnosis and quantitative analysis of micro-short circuits for lithium-ion batteries in battery packs , 2018, Journal of Power Sources.

[87]  J. Fergus,et al.  The formation and stability of the solid electrolyte interface on the graphite anode , 2014 .

[88]  H. Maleki,et al.  Effects of overdischarge on performance and thermal stability of a Li-ion cell , 2006 .

[89]  Gang Niu,et al.  Data-Driven Technology for Engineering Systems Health Management , 2017 .

[90]  Kay Smarsly,et al.  Decentralized fault detection and isolation in wireless structural health monitoring systems using analytical redundancy , 2014, Adv. Eng. Softw..

[91]  Chao Zhang,et al.  Coupled mechanical-electrical-thermal modeling for short-circuit prediction in a lithium-ion cell under mechanical abuse , 2015 .

[92]  Anurag Ganguli,et al.  Embedded Fiber Optic Sensing for Accurate State Estimation in Advanced Battery Management Systems , 2014 .

[93]  H. Maleki,et al.  Internal short circuit in Li-ion cells , 2009 .

[94]  Shaofan Li,et al.  Failure modes and mechanisms for rechargeable Lithium-based batteries: a state-of-the-art review , 2018, Acta Mechanica.

[95]  Giovanni Franceschini,et al.  Development of expert system knowledge base to on-line diagnosis of rotor electrical faults of induction motors , 1992, Conference Record of the 1992 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting.

[96]  Truong Q. Nguyen,et al.  A correlation based fault detection method for short circuits in battery packs , 2017 .

[97]  T. Fuller,et al.  A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion Batteries , 2011 .

[98]  Bo-Hyung Cho,et al.  Li-Ion Battery SOC Estimation Method based on the Reduced Order Extended Kalman Filtering , 2006 .

[99]  Jay Lee,et al.  Prognostics and health management design for rotary machinery systems—Reviews, methodology and applications , 2014 .

[100]  Jianqiu Li,et al.  Cycle Life of Commercial Lithium-Ion Batteries with Lithium Titanium Oxide Anodes in Electric Vehicles , 2014 .

[101]  Beshah Ayalew,et al.  A Diagnostic Scheme for Detection, Isolation and Estimation of Electrochemical Faults in Lithium-Ion Cells , 2015 .

[102]  T. P. Kumar,et al.  Safety mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries , 2006 .

[103]  Salim Erol,et al.  Influence of overcharge and over-discharge on the impedance response of LiCoO2|C batteries , 2011 .

[104]  Afshin Izadian,et al.  Fault diagnosis of Li-Ion batteries using multiple-model adaptive estimation , 2013, IECON 2013 - 39th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society.

[105]  Dennis S. Bernstein,et al.  Battery State of Health Monitoring by Side Reaction Current Density Estimation via Retrospective-Cost Subsystem Identification , 2014 .

[106]  Arun Kumar Jaura,et al.  Dynamic Thermal Model of Li-Ion Battery for Predictive Behavior in Hybrid and Fuel Cell Vehicles , 2003 .

[107]  Erik Frisk,et al.  Automotive engine FDI by application of an automated model-based and data-driven design methodology , 2013 .

[108]  Xiaosong Hu,et al.  Battery warm-up methodologies at subzero temperatures for automotive applications: Recent advances and perspectives , 2020, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science.

[109]  Asoke K. Nandi,et al.  Support vector machines for detection and characterization of rolling element bearing faults , 2001 .

[110]  Zhou Donghua,et al.  THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF FAULT TOLERANT CONTROL , 2000 .

[111]  H. Maleki,et al.  Experimental simulation of internal short circuit in Li-ion and Li-ion-polymer cells , 2011 .

[112]  Jianqiu Li,et al.  Analysis of the heat generation of lithium-ion battery during charging and discharging considering different influencing factors , 2014, Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry.

[113]  Venkat Venkatasubramanian,et al.  Challenges in the industrial applications of fault diagnostic systems , 2000 .

[114]  Daniel H. Doughty,et al.  A General Discussion of Li Ion Battery Safety , 2012 .

[115]  Xiaosong Hu,et al.  A Comparative Study of Control-Oriented Thermal Models for Cylindrical Li-Ion Batteries , 2019, IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification.

[116]  Pierluigi Pisu,et al.  Sensor Fault Detection, Isolation, and Estimation in Lithium-Ion Batteries , 2016, IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology.

[117]  Zhenpo Wang,et al.  Big-Data-Based Thermal Runaway Prognosis of Battery Systems for Electric Vehicles , 2017 .

[118]  Carl Svärd,et al.  Automated Design of an FDI-System for the Wind Turbine Benchmark , 2011 .

[119]  P. Ramadass,et al.  Study of internal short in a Li-ion cell I. Test method development using infra-red imaging technique , 2014 .

[120]  E. Balaban,et al.  Modeling, Detection, and Disambiguation of Sensor Faults for Aerospace Applications , 2009, IEEE Sensors Journal.

[121]  Youngki Kim,et al.  Estimating state-of-charge imbalance of batteries using force measurements , 2016, 2016 American Control Conference (ACC).

[122]  Xiaosong Hu,et al.  State estimation for advanced battery management: Key challenges and future trends , 2019, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.

[123]  Zhou Dong-Hua,et al.  Fault Diagnosis Techniques for Dynamic Systems: Fault Diagnosis Techniques for Dynamic Systems , 2009 .

[124]  Fan Yang,et al.  Model and Fault Inference with the Framework of Probabilistic SDG , 2006, 2006 9th International Conference on Control, Automation, Robotics and Vision.

[125]  Hongwen He,et al.  A fractional-order model-based battery external short circuit fault diagnosis approach for all-climate electric vehicles application , 2018, Journal of Cleaner Production.

[126]  J. Richman,et al.  Physiological time-series analysis using approximate entropy and sample entropy. , 2000, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[127]  Rolf Isermann,et al.  Trends in the Application of Model Based Fault Detection and Diagnosis of Technical Processes , 1996 .

[128]  Mattias Nyberg,et al.  Residual Generators for Fault Diagnosis Using Computation Sequences With Mixed Causality Applied to Automotive Systems , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and Humans.

[129]  Pierluigi Pisu,et al.  On-board Thermal Fault Diagnosis of Lithium-ion Batteries For Hybrid Electric Vehicle Application , 2015 .

[130]  Christopher D. Rahn,et al.  Model-based electrochemical estimation of lithium-ion batteries , 2008, 2008 IEEE International Conference on Control Applications.

[131]  Simona Onori,et al.  Nonlinear Fault Detection and Isolation for a Lithium-Ion Battery Management System , 2010 .

[132]  Jiang Jian-hu,et al.  Fault mechanism study on Li-ion battery at over-discharge and its diagnosis approach , 2017 .

[133]  Kevin L. Gering,et al.  Differential voltage analyses of high-power lithium-ion cells: 3. Another anode phenomenon , 2005 .

[134]  Suzanne Lesecq,et al.  Sensors fault diagnosis for a BMS , 2014, 2014 European Control Conference (ECC).

[135]  Nigel P. Brandon,et al.  Module design and fault diagnosis in electric vehicle batteries , 2012 .

[136]  Zhenpo Wang,et al.  Fault and defect diagnosis of battery for electric vehicles based on big data analysis methods , 2017 .

[137]  Xidong Tang,et al.  Li-ion battery parameter estimation for state of charge , 2011, Proceedings of the 2011 American Control Conference.

[138]  K. Kitoh,et al.  100 Wh Large size Li-ion batteries and safety tests , 1999 .

[139]  Shaopeng Zhang,et al.  Effect of Overdischarge on Swelling and Recharge Performance of Lithium Ion Cells , 2008 .

[140]  Majid Bahrami,et al.  Investigating electrical contact resistance losses in lithium-ion battery assemblies for hybrid and , 2011 .

[141]  Christopher J. Orendorff,et al.  Failure propagation in multi-cell lithium ion batteries , 2015 .

[142]  B. Samanta,et al.  ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK BASED FAULT DIAGNOSTICS OF ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS USING TIME-DOMAIN FEATURES , 2003 .

[143]  K. Abbaszadeh,et al.  Stator fault detection in induction machines by parameter estimation, using adaptive kalman filter , 2007, 2007 Mediterranean Conference on Control & Automation.

[144]  He Ren,et al.  Fault Prediction and Fault-Tolerant of Lithium-ion Batteries Temperature Failure for Electric Vehicle , 2012, 2012 Third International Conference on Digital Manufacturing & Automation.

[145]  Minggao Ouyang,et al.  Characterization of large format lithium ion battery exposed to extremely high temperature , 2014 .

[146]  Jianqiu Li,et al.  Internal short circuit detection for battery pack using equivalent parameter and consistency method , 2015 .

[147]  Tomasz Wierzbicki,et al.  Failure in lithium-ion batteries under transverse indentation loading , 2018, Journal of Power Sources.

[148]  Giorgio Rizzoni,et al.  Structural analysis based sensors fault detection and isolation of cylindrical lithium-ion batteries in automotive applications , 2016 .

[149]  Alexander Feldman,et al.  An Efficient Algorithm for Finding Minimal Overconstrained Subsystems for Model-Based Diagnosis , 2013 .

[150]  Zhenxing Liu,et al.  Online rotor mixed fault diagnosis way based on spectrum analysis of instantaneous power in squirrel cage induction motors , 2004, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion.

[151]  Mehrdad Saif,et al.  Diagnostics in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenging Issues and Recent Achievements , 2013 .

[152]  Zhenpo Wang,et al.  Real-time Fault Diagnosis Method of Battery System Based on Shannon Entropy , 2017 .

[153]  Mehrdad Saif,et al.  Plating Mechanism Detection in Lithium-ion batteries, by using a particle-filtering based estimation technique , 2013, 2013 American Control Conference.

[154]  Fotis Kopsaftopoulos,et al.  Estimating state of charge and health of lithium-ion batteries with guided waves using built-in piezoelectric sensors/actuators , 2018 .

[155]  Xiaosong Hu,et al.  A comparative study of equivalent circuit models for Li-ion batteries , 2012 .

[156]  P. Ramadass,et al.  Study of internal short in a Li-ion cell-II. Numerical investigation using a 3D electrochemical-thermal model , 2014 .

[157]  Richard T. Haasch,et al.  Diagnosis of power fade mechanisms in high-power lithium-ion cells☆ , 2003 .

[158]  Raghunathan Rengaswamy,et al.  A review of process fault detection and diagnosis: Part II: Qualitative models and search strategies , 2003, Comput. Chem. Eng..

[159]  Robert H. Bishop.  The Mechatronics Handbook - 2 Volume Set , 2002 .

[160]  Hongwen He,et al.  Sensor fault detection and isolation for a lithium-ion battery pack in electric vehicles using adaptive extended Kalman filter , 2017 .

[161]  Elham Sahraei,et al.  Microscale failure mechanisms leading to internal short circuit in Li-ion batteries under complex loading scenarios , 2016 .

[162]  Jianqiu Li,et al.  Micro-Short-Circuit Diagnosis for Series-Connected Lithium-Ion Battery Packs Using Mean-Difference Model , 2019, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.

[163]  Srdjan Simunovic,et al.  Internal configuration of prismatic lithium-ion cells at the onset of mechanically induced short circuit , 2016 .

[164]  Yan Yu,et al.  A Review on Lithium-Ion Batteries Safety Issues: Existing Problems and Possible Solutions , 2012 .

[165]  Bing Xia,et al.  External short circuit fault diagnosis for lithium-ion batteries , 2014, 2014 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC).

[166]  Jing Yang,et al.  Fault detection and diagnosis of permanent-magnet DC motor based on parameter estimation and neural network , 2000, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron..

[167]  Jianqiu Li,et al.  A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles , 2013 .

[168]  T. Wierzbicki,et al.  Modeling and short circuit detection of 18650 Li-ion cells under mechanical abuse conditions , 2012 .