Social eye gaze in human-robot interaction

This article reviews the state of the art in social eye gaze for human-robot interaction (HRI). It establishes three categories of gaze research in HRI, defined by differences in goals and methods: a human-centered approach, which focuses on people's responses to gaze; a design-centered approach, which addresses the features of robot gaze behavior and appearance that improve interaction; and a technology-centered approach, which is concentrated on the computational tools for implementing social eye gaze in robots. This paper begins with background information about gaze research in HRI and ends with a set of open questions.

[1]  Jacob Cohen.  A Coefficient of Agreement for Nominal Scales , 1960 .

[2]  A. Kendon.  Some functions of gaze-direction in social interaction. , 1967, Acta psychologica.

[3]  M. Argyle,et al.  Gaze, Mutual Gaze, and Proximity , 1972 .

[4]  C. Kleinke.  Gaze and eye contact: a research review. , 1986, Psychological bulletin.

[5]  M. Argyle,et al.  Gaze and Mutual Gaze , 1994, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[6]  M. Studdert-Kennedy.  Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal About Thought. , 1994 .

[7]  C. Moore,et al.  Joint attention : its origins and role in development , 1995 .

[8]  J Hyönä,et al.  Pupil Dilation as a Measure of Processing Load in Simultaneous Interpretation and Other Language Tasks , 1995, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. A, Human experimental psychology.

[9]  Kristinn R. Thórisson.  Gandalf: an embodied humanoid capable of real-time multimodal dialogue with people , 1997, AGENTS '97.

[10]  John R. Anderson,et al.  ACT-R: A Theory of Higher Level Cognition and Its Relation to Visual Attention , 1997, Hum. Comput. Interact..

[11]  K.R. Thorisson,et al.  Layered modular action control for communicative humanoids , 1997, Proceedings. Computer Animation '97 (Cat. No.97TB100120).

[12]  Akira Ito,et al.  Towards Language Acquisition by an Attention-Sharing Robot , 1998, CoNLL.

[13]  Jon Driver,et al.  Adult's Eyes Trigger Shifts of Visual Attention in Human Infants , 1998 .

[14]  Brian Scassellati.  Mechanisms of Shared Attention for a Humanoid Robot , 1998 .

[15]  J. Cassell,et al.  Turn taking vs. Discourse Structure: How Best to Model Multimodal Conversation , 1998 .

[16]  B. Scassellati.  Imitation and mechanisms of joint attention: a developmental structure for building social skills on a humanoid robot , 1999 .

[17]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  How to build robots that make friends and influence people , 1999, Proceedings 1999 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Human and Environment Friendly Robots with High Intelligence and Emotional Quotients (Cat. No.99CH36289).

[18]  V. Bruce,et al.  Reflexive visual orienting in response to the social attention of others , 1999 .

[19]  S. Baron-Cohen,et al.  Gaze Perception Triggers Reflexive Visuospatial Orienting , 1999 .

[20]  Tetsunori Kobayashi,et al.  Multi-person conversation via multi-modal interface - a robot who communicate with multi-user - , 1999, EUROSPEECH.

[21]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  A Context-Dependent Attention System for a Social Robot , 1999, IJCAI.

[22]  S. Goldin-Meadow,et al.  The role of gesture in communication and thinking , 1999, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[23]  Norman I. Badler,et al.  Where to Look? Automating Attending Behaviors of Virtual Human Characters , 1999, AGENTS '99.

[24]  S. Drucker,et al.  The Role of Eye Gaze in Avatar Mediated Conversational Interfaces , 2000 .

[25]  Edward G. Freedman,et al.  Coordination of the eyes and head: movement kinematics , 2000, Experimental Brain Research.

[26]  Kristinn R. Thórisson,et al.  FACE-TO-FACE COMMUNICATION WITH COMPUTER AGENTS , 2000 .

[27]  N. Emery,et al.  The eyes have it: the neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze , 2000, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[28]  C. Koch,et al.  A saliency-based search mechanism for overt and covert shifts of visual attention , 2000, Vision Research.

[29]  Justine Cassell,et al.  Embodied conversational interface agents , 2000, CACM.

[30]  Zenzi M. Griffin,et al.  PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Research Article WHAT THE EYES SAY ABOUT SPEAKING , 2022 .

[31]  Catherine Pelachaud,et al.  Eye Communication in a Conversational 3D Synthetic Agent , 2000, AI Commun..

[32]  James C. Lester,et al.  Animated Pedagogical Agents: Face-to-Face Interaction in Interactive Learning Environments , 2000 .

[33]  J. Beatty,et al.  The pupillary system. , 2000 .

[34]  Tetsunori Kobayashi,et al.  Modeling of conversational strategy for the robot participating in the group conversation , 2001, INTERSPEECH.

[35]  H. Kozima,et al.  A Robot that Learns to Communicate with Human Caregivers , 2001 .

[36]  C. Koch,et al.  Computational modelling of visual attention , 2001, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[37]  Mel Slater,et al.  The impact of eye gaze on communication using humanoid avatars , 2001, CHI.

[38]  H. Ishiguro,et al.  A Model of Embodied Communications with Gestures between Human and Robots , 2001 .

[39]  M. Hayhoe,et al.  In what ways do eye movements contribute to everyday activities? , 2001, Vision Research.

[40]  R. Johansson,et al.  Eye–Hand Coordination in Object Manipulation , 2001, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[41]  Hiromitsu Kobayashi,et al.  Unique morphology of the human eye and its adaptive meaning: comparative studies on external morphology of the primate eye. , 2001, Journal of human evolution.

[42]  Anton Nijholt,et al.  Eye gaze patterns in conversations: there is more to conversational agents than meets the eyes , 2001, CHI.

[43]  Stefan Schaal,et al.  Overt visual attention for a humanoid robot , 2001, Proceedings 2001 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Expanding the Societal Role of Robotics in the the Next Millennium (Cat. No.01CH37180).

[44]  A. Young,et al.  Reading the mind from eye gaze , 2002, Neuropsychologia.

[45]  Norihiro Hagita,et al.  Messages embedded in gaze of interface agents --- impression management with agent's gaze , 2002, CHI.

[46]  A. Meltzoff,et al.  The importance of eyes: how infants interpret adult looking behavior. , 2002, Developmental psychology.

[47]  Catherine Pelachaud,et al.  Rules for Responsive Robots: Using Human Interactions to Build Virtual Interactions , 2002 .

[48]  Roel Vertegaal,et al.  Explaining effects of eye gaze on mediated group conversations:: amount or synchronization? , 2002, CSCW '02.

[49]  J. Movellan,et al.  The development of gaze following as a Bayesian systems identification problem , 2002, Proceedings 2nd International Conference on Development and Learning. ICDL 2002.

[50]  Illah R. Nourbakhsh,et al.  The role of expressiveness and attention in human-robot interaction , 2002, Proceedings 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.02CH37292).

[51]  T. Kanda,et al.  Robot mediated round table: Analysis of the effect of robot's gaze , 2002, Proceedings. 11th IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[52]  Laurent Itti,et al.  Realistic avatar eye and head animation using a neurobiological model of visual attention , 2004, SPIE Optics + Photonics.

[53]  M. Lungarella,et al.  Beyond Gazing, Pointing, and Reaching: A Survey of Developmental Robotics , 2003 .

[54]  Illah R. Nourbakhsh,et al.  A survey of socially interactive robots , 2003, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[55]  Mel Slater,et al.  The impact of avatar realism and eye gaze control on perceived quality of communication in a shared immersive virtual environment , 2003, CHI '03.

[56]  Minoru Asada,et al.  A constructive model for the development of joint attention , 2003, Connect. Sci..

[57]  A. Ito,et al.  Why robots need body for mind communication - an attempt of eye-contact between human and robot , 2004, RO-MAN 2004. 13th IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (IEEE Catalog No.04TH8759).

[58]  Justine Cassell,et al.  BEAT: the Behavior Expression Animation Toolkit , 2001, Life-like characters.

[59]  Andrea Lockerd Thomaz,et al.  Teaching and working with robots as a collaboration , 2004, Proceedings of the Third International Joint Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, 2004. AAMAS 2004..

[60]  Alan Kingstone,et al.  Attentional effects of counterpredictive gaze and arrow cues. , 2004, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[61]  Alan Kingstone,et al.  The eyes have it!: An fMRI investigation , 2004, Brain and Cognition.

[62]  P. Downing,et al.  Why does the gaze of others direct visual attention? , 2004 .

[63]  Candace L. Sidner,et al.  Where to look: a study of human-robot engagement , 2004, IUI '04.

[64]  Katsushi Ikeuchi,et al.  Flexible cooperation between human and robot by interpreting human intention from gaze information , 2004, 2004 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37566).

[65]  Andrea Lockerd Thomaz,et al.  Tutelage and socially guided robot learning , 2004, 2004 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37566).

[66]  D. Ballard,et al.  Eye movements in natural behavior , 2005, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[67]  Andrea Lockerd Thomaz,et al.  Effects of nonverbal communication on efficiency and robustness in human-robot teamwork , 2005, 2005 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.

[68]  A. Kingstone,et al.  Eyes are special but not for everyone: the case of autism. , 2005, Brain research. Cognitive brain research.

[69]  Elisabetta Bevacqua,et al.  A Model of Attention and Interest Using Gaze Behavior , 2005, IVA.

[70]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  How Social Robots Will Help Us to Diagnose, Treat, and Understand Autism , 2005, ISRR.

[71]  Sven Behnke,et al.  Towards a humanoid museum guide robot that interacts with multiple persons , 2005, 5th IEEE-RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots, 2005..

[72]  Junji Yamato,et al.  A probabilistic inference of multiparty-conversation structure based on Markov-switching models of gaze patterns, head directions, and utterances , 2005, ICMI '05.

[73]  Yuichiro Yoshikawa,et al.  Responsive Robot Gaze to Interaction Partner , 2006, Robotics: Science and Systems.

[74]  C. Teuscher,et al.  Gaze following: why (not) learn it? , 2006, Developmental science.

[75]  Sang Ryong Kim,et al.  Are physically embodied social agents better than disembodied social agents?: The effects of physical embodiment, tactile interaction, and people's loneliness in human-robot interaction , 2006, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[76]  Yuichiro Yoshikawa,et al.  The effects of responsive eye movement and blinking behavior in a communication robot , 2006, 2006 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.

[77]  Matthew W. Hoffman,et al.  A probabilistic model of gaze imitation and shared attention , 2006, Neural Networks.

[78]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Active Learning of Joint Attention , 2006, 2006 6th IEEE-RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots.

[79]  Laurent Itti,et al.  Photorealistic Attention-Based Gaze Animation , 2006, 2006 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo.

[80]  Bilge Mutlu,et al.  A Storytelling Robot: Modeling and Evaluation of Human-like Gaze Behavior , 2006, 2006 6th IEEE-RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots.

[81]  E. Torres-Jara,et al.  Challenges for Robot Manipulation in Human Environments , 2006 .

[82]  Luca Turella,et al.  When Gaze Turns into Grasp , 2006, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[83]  Norman I. Badler,et al.  Visual Attention and Eye Gaze During Multiparty Conversations with Distractions , 2006, IVA.

[84]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  The Grand Challenges in Socially Assistive Robotics , 2007 .

[85]  Charles C. Kemp,et al.  Challenges for robot manipulation in human environments [Grand Challenges of Robotics] , 2007, IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine.

[86]  S. Tipper,et al.  Gaze cueing of attention: visual attention, social cognition, and individual differences. , 2007, Psychological bulletin.

[87]  Hideaki Kuzuoka,et al.  Museum guide robot based on sociological interaction analysis , 2007, CHI.

[88]  Brent Lance,et al.  The Rickel Gaze Model: A Window on the Mind of a Virtual Human , 2007, IVA.

[89]  Marc Hanheide,et al.  Human-Oriented Interaction With an Anthropomorphic Robot , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Robotics.

[90]  S. Brennan,et al.  Speakers' eye gaze disambiguates referring expressions early during face-to-face conversation , 2007 .

[91]  Susan R. Fussell,et al.  Comparing a computer agent with a humanoid robot , 2007, 2007 2nd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[92]  A. Tapus.  The Grand Challenges in Helping Humans Through Social Interaction , 2007 .

[93]  B. Scassellati,et al.  Measuring context: The gaze patterns of children with autism evaluated from the bottom-up , 2007, 2007 IEEE 6th International Conference on Development and Learning.

[94]  Maja J. Mataric,et al.  Embodiment and Human-Robot Interaction: A Task-Based Perspective , 2007, RO-MAN 2007 - The 16th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[95]  Hirotake Yamazoe,et al.  Gaze-communicative behavior of stuffed-toy robot with joint attention and eye contact based on ambient gaze-tracking , 2007, ICMI '07.

[96]  Hideaki Kuzuoka,et al.  Prior-to-request and request behaviors within elderly day care: Implications for developing service robots for use in multiparty settings , 2007, ECSCW.

[97]  Tetsuo Ono,et al.  Android as a telecommunication medium with a human-like presence , 2007, 2007 2nd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[98]  Giulio Sandini,et al.  The iCub humanoid robot: an open platform for research in embodied cognition , 2008, PerMIS.

[99]  Alexandre Bernardino,et al.  Multimodal saliency-based bottom-up attention a framework for the humanoid robot iCub , 2008, 2008 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[100]  S. Steinhauer,et al.  Blink before and after you think: blinks occur prior to and following cognitive load indexed by pupillary responses. , 2008, Psychophysiology.

[101]  T. Kanda,et al.  How to Build an Intentional Android: Infants' Imitation of a Robot's Goal-Directed Actions , 2008 .

[102]  Raj M. Ratwani,et al.  Integrating vision and audition within a cognitive architecture to track conversations , 2008, 2008 3rd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[103]  Takayuki Kanda,et al.  Nonverbal leakage in robots: Communication of intentions through seemingly unintentional behavior , 2009, 2009 4th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[104]  Katarzyna Chawarska,et al.  Looking But Not Seeing: Atypical Visual Scanning and Recognition of Faces in 2 and 4-Year-Old Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder , 2009, Journal of autism and developmental disorders.

[105]  Marek P. Michalowski,et al.  Keepon : A Playful Robot for Research, Therapy, and Entertainment (Original Paper) , 2009 .

[106]  Brett Browning,et al.  A survey of robot learning from demonstration , 2009, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[107]  Matthew W. Crocker,et al.  Visual attention in spoken human-robot interaction , 2009, 2009 4th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[108]  P. Ravindra De Silva,et al.  Therapeutic-assisted robot for children with autism , 2009, 2009 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.

[109]  Takayuki Kanda,et al.  How to approach humans?-strategies for social robots to initiate interaction , 2009, 2009 4th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[110]  Tony Belpaeme,et al.  Towards retro-projected robot faces: An alternative to mechatronic and android faces , 2009, RO-MAN 2009 - The 18th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[111]  Dana Kulic,et al.  Measurement Instruments for the Anthropomorphism, Animacy, Likeability, Perceived Intelligence, and Perceived Safety of Robots , 2009, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[112]  Kerstin Dautenhahn,et al.  Therapeutic and educational objectives in robot assisted play for children with autism , 2009, RO-MAN 2009 - The 18th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[113]  Takayuki Kanda,et al.  Footing in human-robot conversations: How robots might shape participant roles using gaze cues , 2009, 2009 4th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[114]  Chrystopher L. Nehaniv,et al.  Title of paper : KASPAR – A Minimally Expressive Humanoid Robot for Human-Robot Interaction Research , 2009 .

[115]  Hiroshi Ishiguro,et al.  Head motions during dialogue speech and nod timing control in humanoid robots , 2010, HRI 2010.

[116]  Christoph Bartneck,et al.  The influence of robot anthropomorphism on the feelings of embarrassment when interacting with robots , 2010, Paladyn J. Behav. Robotics.

[117]  Ning Wang,et al.  Don't just stare at me! , 2010, CHI.

[118]  Hiroshi Ishiguro,et al.  Head motion during dialogue speech and nod timing control in humanoid robots , 2010, 2010 5th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[119]  Eric Horvitz,et al.  Facilitating multiparty dialog with gaze, gesture, and speech , 2010, ICMI-MLMI '10.

[120]  K. Yamazaki,et al.  Coordination of verbal and non-verbal actions in human―robot interaction at museums and exhibitions , 2010 .

[121]  Cynthia Breazeal,et al.  An Empirical Analysis of Team Coordination Behaviors and Action Planning With Application to Human–Robot Teaming , 2010, Hum. Factors.

[122]  Gérard Bailly,et al.  Gaze, conversational agents and face-to-face communication , 2010, Speech Commun..

[123]  Henrik I. Christensen,et al.  Computational visual attention systems and their cognitive foundations: A survey , 2010, TAP.

[124]  Tony Belpaeme,et al.  A study of a retro-projected robotic face and its effectiveness for gaze reading by humans , 2010, 2010 5th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[125]  Christoph Bartneck,et al.  Expressive robots in education: varying the degree of social supportive behavior of a robotic tutor , 2010, CHI.

[126]  Candace L. Sidner,et al.  Recognizing engagement in human-robot interaction , 2010, 2010 5th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[127]  Rajesh P. N. Rao,et al.  "Social" robots are psychological agents for infants: A test of gaze following , 2010, Neural Networks.

[128]  Gamini Dissanayake,et al.  Nonverbal robot-group interaction using an imitated gaze cue , 2011, 2011 6th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[129]  Andrea Lockerd Thomaz,et al.  Effects of responding to, initiating and ensuring joint attention in human-robot interaction , 2011, 2011 RO-MAN.

[130]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Robot gaze does not reflexively cue human attention , 2011, CogSci.

[131]  Gabriel Skantze,et al.  Furhat: A Back-Projected Human-Like Robot Head for Multiparty Human-Machine Interaction , 2011, COST 2102 Training School.

[132]  Robin R. Murphy,et al.  Inferring social gaze from conversational structure and timing , 2011, 2011 6th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[133]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  The Benefits of Interactions with Physically Present Robots over Video-Displayed Agents , 2011, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[134]  Brett Browning,et al.  Believable Robot Characters , 2011, AI Mag..

[135]  Kai Vogeley,et al.  A Non-Verbal Turing Test: Differentiating Mind from Machine in Gaze-Based Social Interaction , 2011, PloS one.

[136]  Wendy Ju,et al.  Expressing thought: Improving robot readability with animation principles , 2011, 2011 6th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[137]  Gordon Cheng,et al.  “Mask-bot”: A life-size robot head using talking head animation for human-robot communication , 2011, 2011 11th IEEE-RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots.

[138]  Candace L. Sidner,et al.  Generating connection events for human-robot collaboration , 2011, 2011 RO-MAN.

[139]  Bilge Mutlu,et al.  Human-robot proxemics: Physical and psychological distancing in human-robot interaction , 2011, 2011 6th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[140]  Robin R. Murphy,et al.  A survey of social gaze , 2011, 2011 6th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[141]  M. Crocker,et al.  Investigating joint attention mechanisms through spoken human–robot interaction , 2011, Cognition.

[142]  Zheng Li,et al.  EEMML: the emotional eye movement animation toolkit , 2011, Multimedia Tools and Applications.

[143]  Bilge Mutlu,et al.  Robot behavior toolkit: Generating effective social behaviors for robots , 2012, 2012 7th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[144]  Hiroshi Ishiguro,et al.  Generation of nodding, head tilting and eye gazing for human-robot dialogue interaction , 2012, 2012 7th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[145]  Sean Andrist,et al.  Designing effective gaze mechanisms for virtual agents , 2012, CHI.

[146]  Andrew Olney,et al.  Gaze tutor: A gaze-reactive intelligent tutoring system , 2012, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[147]  Jens Edlund,et al.  Taming Mona Lisa: Communicating gaze faithfully in 2D and 3D facial projections , 2012, TIIS.

[148]  Matthias Scheutz,et al.  Adaptive eye gaze patterns in interactions with human and artificial agents , 2012, TIIS.

[149]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  The Physical Presence of a Robot Tutor Increases Cognitive Learning Gains , 2012, CogSci.

[150]  Takayuki Kanda,et al.  Conversational gaze mechanisms for humanlike robots , 2012, TIIS.

[151]  A. Tapus,et al.  Children with Autism Social Engagement in Interaction with Nao, an Imitative Robot - A Series of Single Case Experiments , 2012 .

[152]  Ipke Wachsmuth,et al.  An Operational Model of Joint Attention - Timing of Gaze Patterns in Interactions between Humans and a Virtual Human , 2012, CogSci.

[153]  Xia Mao,et al.  Emotional eye movement generation based on Geneva Emotion Wheel for virtual agents , 2012, J. Vis. Lang. Comput..

[154]  Gabriel Skantze,et al.  Perception of gaze direction for situated interaction , 2012, Gaze-In '12.

[155]  Petra Wagner,et al.  Gaze Patterns in Turn-Taking , 2012, INTERSPEECH.

[156]  B. Scassellati,et al.  Robots for use in autism research. , 2012, Annual review of biomedical engineering.

[157]  Bilge Mutlu,et al.  Pay attention!: designing adaptive agents that monitor and improve user engagement , 2012, CHI.

[158]  Siddhartha S. Srinivasa,et al.  Learning the communication of intent prior to physical collaboration , 2012, 2012 IEEE RO-MAN: The 21st IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[159]  Sean Andrist,et al.  A head-eye coordination model for animating gaze shifts of virtual characters , 2012, Gaze-In '12.

[160]  Bilge Mutlu,et al.  Designing persuasive robots: How robots might persuade people using vocal and nonverbal cues , 2012, 2012 7th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[161]  Frank Broz,et al.  Mutual gaze, personality, and familiarity: Dual eye-tracking during conversation , 2012, 2012 IEEE RO-MAN: The 21st IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[162]  Rachid Alami,et al.  A Human-Aware Manipulation Planner , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Robotics.

[163]  Peter Ford Dominey,et al.  I Reach Faster When I See You Look: Gaze Effects in Human–Human and Human–Robot Face-to-Face Cooperation , 2012, Front. Neurorobot..

[164]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Robot Gaze Is Different From Human Gaze: Evidence that robot gaze does not cue reflexive attention , 2012 .

[165]  Ron Artstein,et al.  Towards building a virtual counselor: modeling nonverbal behavior during intimate self-disclosure , 2012, AAMAS.

[166]  Sonya S. Kwak,et al.  Have you ever lied?: The impacts of gaze avoidance on people's perception of a robot , 2013, 2013 8th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[167]  T. Kanda,et al.  Infants understand the referential nature of human gaze but not robot gaze. , 2013, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[168]  Cynthia Breazeal,et al.  Engaging robots: easing complex human-robot teamwork using backchanneling , 2013, CSCW.

[169]  T. Kanda,et al.  The power of human gaze on infant learning , 2013, Cognition.

[170]  Sean Andrist,et al.  Conversational Gaze Aversion for Virtual Agents , 2013, IVA.

[171]  Chen Yu,et al.  Cooperative gazing behaviors in human multi-robot interaction , 2013 .

[172]  Norman I. Badler,et al.  Evaluating perceived trust from procedurally animated gaze , 2013, MIG.

[173]  Anthony G. Pipe,et al.  Joint action understanding improves robot-to-human object handover , 2013, 2013 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.

[174]  Anna-Lisa Vollmer,et al.  Robot feedback shapes the tutor’s presentation: How a robot’s online gaze strategies lead to micro-adaptation of the human’s conduct , 2013 .

[175]  Bilge Mutlu,et al.  The repertoire of robot behavior , 2013, J. Hum. Robot Interact..

[176]  Ali Borji,et al.  State-of-the-Art in Visual Attention Modeling , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[177]  Reid G. Simmons,et al.  Estimating human interest and attention via gaze analysis , 2013, 2013 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[178]  Vanessa Evers,et al.  What happens when a robot favors someone? How a tour guide robot uses gaze behavior to address multiple persons while storytelling about art , 2013, 2013 8th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[179]  Siddhartha S. Srinivasa,et al.  Toward seamless human-robot handovers , 2013, Journal of Human-Robot Interaction.

[180]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Are you looking at me? Perception of robot attention is mediated by gaze type and group size , 2013, 2013 8th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[181]  N. Sarkar,et al.  A Step Towards Developing Adaptive Robot-Mediated Intervention Architecture (ARIA) for Children With Autism , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering.

[182]  Rachid Alami,et al.  Towards a Task-Aware Proactive Sociable Robot Based on Multi-state Perspective-Taking , 2013, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[183]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Speech and Gaze Conflicts in Collaborative Human-Robot Interactions , 2014, CogSci.

[184]  Allison Sauppé,et al.  Robot Deictics: How Gesture and Context Shape Referential Communication , 2014, 2014 9th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[185]  Karon E. MacLean,et al.  Meet Me where I’m Gazing: How Shared Attention Gaze Affects Human-Robot Handover Timing , 2014, 2014 9th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[186]  Adriana Tapus,et al.  Motion-Oriented Attention for a Social Gaze Robot Behavior , 2014, ICSR.

[187]  Scott E. Hudson,et al.  Spatial and Other Social Engagement Cues in a Child-Robot Interaction: Effects of a Sidekick , 2014, 2014 9th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[188]  Danilo De Rossi,et al.  Designing and Evaluating a Social Gaze-Control System for a Humanoid Robot , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems.

[189]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Data-Driven Model of Nonverbal Behavior for Socially Assistive Human-Robot Interactions , 2014, ICMI.

[190]  Sean Andrist,et al.  Conversational Gaze Aversion for Humanlike Robots , 2014, 2014 9th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[191]  Bilge Mutlu,et al.  Learning-Based Modeling of Multimodal Behaviors for Humanlike Robots , 2014, 2014 9th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[192]  Siddhartha S. Srinivasa,et al.  Deliberate Delays During Robot-to-Human Handovers Improve Compliance With Gaze Communication , 2014, 2014 9th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[193]  Vasant Srinivasan.  High Social Acceptance of Head Gaze Loosely Synchronized with Speech for Social Robots , 2014 .

[194]  Sean Andrist,et al.  Look Like Me: Matching Robot Personality via Gaze to Increase Motivation , 2015, CHI.

[195]  Takayuki Kanda,et al.  The role of social eye-gaze in children’s and adults’ ownership attributions to robotic agents in three cultures , 2015 .

[196]  Max Q.-H. Meng,et al.  Impacts of Robot Head Gaze on Robot-to-Human Handovers , 2015, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[197]  Tony Belpaeme,et al.  Comparing Robot Embodiments in a Guided Discovery Learning Interaction with Children , 2015, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[198]  Nikolaos Mavridis,et al.  A review of verbal and non-verbal human-robot interactive communication , 2014, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[199]  Sean Andrist,et al.  Look together: analyzing gaze coordination with epistemic network analysis , 2015, Front. Psychol..

[200]  David Schlangen,et al.  The Power of a Glance: Evaluating Embodiment and Turn-Tracking Strategies of an Active Robotic Overhearer , 2015, AAAI Spring Symposia.

[201]  Tony Belpaeme,et al.  Head Pose Estimation is an Inadequate Replacement for Eye Gaze in Child-Robot Interaction , 2015, HRI.

[202]  Jamy Li,et al.  The benefit of being physically present: A survey of experimental works comparing copresent robots, telepresent robots and virtual agents , 2015, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[203]  Raymond H. Cuijpers,et al.  Turn-yielding cues in robot-human conversation , 2015 .

[204]  Norman I. Badler,et al.  A Review of Eye Gaze in Virtual Agents, Social Robotics and HCI: Behaviour Generation, User Interaction and Perception , 2015, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[205]  Jaap Ham,et al.  Combining Robotic Persuasive Strategies: The Persuasive Power of a Storytelling Robot that Uses Gazing and Gestures , 2015, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[206]  Frederic Delaunay,et al.  A retro-projected robotic head for social human-robot interaction , 2016 .

[207]  Bilge Mutlu,et al.  Anticipatory robot control for efficient human-robot collaboration , 2016, 2016 11th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).