Swarm Intelligence - Searchers, Cleaners and Hunters

This chapter examines the concept of swarm intelligence through three examples of complex problems which are solved by a decentralized swarm of simple agents. The protocols employed by these agents are presented, as well as various analytic results for their performance and for the problems in general. The problems examined are the problem of finding patterns within physical graphs (e.g. k-cliques), the dynamic cooperative cleaners problem, and a problem concerning a swarm of UAVs (unmanned air vehicles), hunting an evading target (or targets). In addition, the work contains a discussion regarding open questions and ongoing and future research in this field.

[1]  Israel A. Wagner,et al.  Vertex-Ant-Walk – A robust method for efficient exploration of faulty graphs , 2004, Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence.

[2]  Bruce Randall Donald,et al.  Distributed manipulation of multiple objects using ropes , 2000, Proceedings 2000 ICRA. Millennium Conference. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Symposia Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37065).

[3]  David M. Miller,et al.  Handbook of Mathematical Functions With Formulas, Graphs and Mathematical Tables (National Bureau of Standards Applied Mathematics Series No. 55) , 1965 .

[4]  Vijay V. Vazirani,et al.  Approximation Algorithms , 2001, Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

[5]  Sanjeev Arora,et al.  Probabilistic checking of proofs: a new characterization of NP , 1998, JACM.

[6]  John S. Bay,et al.  Toward the development of a material transport system using swarms of ant-like robots , 1993, [1993] Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[7]  Nils J. Nilsson,et al.  A Formal Basis for the Heuristic Determination of Minimum Cost Paths , 1968, IEEE Trans. Syst. Sci. Cybern..

[8]  Martial Hebert,et al.  Distributed robotic mapping of extreme environments , 2001, SPIE Optics East.

[9]  Maja J. Mataric,et al.  Interaction and intelligent behavior , 1994 .

[10]  Ronald C. Arkin,et al.  Multiagent Mission Specification and Execution , 1997, Auton. Robots.

[11]  M Dorigo,et al.  Ant colonies for the quadratic assignment problem , 1999, J. Oper. Res. Soc..

[12]  Tamio Arai,et al.  Collision Avoidance Among Multiple Robots Using Virtual Impedance , 1989, Proceedings. IEEE/RSJ International Workshop on Intelligent Robots and Systems '. (IROS '89) 'The Autonomous Mobile Robots and Its Applications.

[13]  Ori Gerstel,et al.  The virtual path layout problem in fast networks (extended abstract) , 1994, PODC '94.

[14]  Shmuel Zaks,et al.  Path Layout in ATM Networks , 1997, SOFSEM.

[15]  Manuela M. Veloso,et al.  Task Decomposition, Dynamic Role Assignment, and Low-Bandwidth Communication for Real-Time Strategic Teamwork , 1999, Artif. Intell..

[16]  Maja J. Mataric,et al.  Robot formations using only local sensing and control , 2001, Proceedings 2001 IEEE International Symposium on Computational Intelligence in Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.01EX515).

[17]  Wolfram Burgard,et al.  A Probabilistic Approach to Collaborative Multi-Robot Localization , 2000, Auton. Robots.

[18]  Walter Truszkowski,et al.  Verifying large numbers of cooperating adaptive agents , 2005, 11th International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Systems (ICPADS'05).

[19]  M. C. Sinclair,et al.  Ant colony optimisation for virtual-wavelength-path routing and wavelength allocation , 1999, Proceedings of the 1999 Congress on Evolutionary Computation-CEC99 (Cat. No. 99TH8406).

[20]  Marco Dorigo,et al.  Ant system for Job-shop Scheduling , 1994 .

[21]  Michael P. Wellman Market-aware agents for a multiagent world , 1997, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[22]  Lynne E. Parker,et al.  Multi-Robot Learning in a Cooperative Observation Task , 2000, DARS.

[23]  Tara A. Estlin,et al.  A comparison of coordinated planning methods for cooperating rovers , 1999, AGENTS '00.

[24]  Jun Ota,et al.  Motion planning for cooperative transportation of a large object by multiple mobile robots in a 3D environment , 2000, Proceedings 2000 ICRA. Millennium Conference. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Symposia Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37065).

[25]  Peter C. Nelson,et al.  Unidirectional and bidirectional search algorithms , 1992, IEEE Software.

[26]  Paul Keng-Chieh Wang Navigation strategies for multiple autonomous mobile robots moving in formation , 1991, J. Field Robotics.

[27]  Marios M. Polycarpou,et al.  A cooperative search framework for distributed agents , 2001, Proceeding of the 2001 IEEE International Symposium on Intelligent Control (ISIC '01) (Cat. No.01CH37206).

[28]  Reid G. Smith,et al.  The Contract Net Protocol: High-Level Communication and Control in a Distributed Problem Solver , 1980, IEEE Transactions on Computers.

[29]  Tucker R. Balch,et al.  AuRA: principles and practice in review , 1997, J. Exp. Theor. Artif. Intell..

[30]  B. O. Koopman The Theory of Search. II. Target Detection , 1956 .

[31]  Peter M. Will,et al.  Autonomous and Self-Sufficient CONRO Modules for Reconfigurable Robots , 2000, DARS.

[32]  Meir G. Kohn,et al.  The theory of search , 1974 .

[33]  Vineet Bafna,et al.  Pattern Matching Algorithms , 1997 .

[34]  Azriel Rosenfeld,et al.  Learning in Navigation Goal Finding in Graphs , 1996, Int. J. Pattern Recognit. Artif. Intell..

[35]  Israel A. Wagner,et al.  Discrete bee dance algorithm for pattern formation on a grid , 2003, IEEE/WIC International Conference on Intelligent Agent Technology, 2003. IAT 2003..

[36]  Michael A. Bender,et al.  The power of a pebble: exploring and mapping directed graphs , 1998, STOC '98.

[37]  Lynne E. Parker,et al.  ALLIANCE: an architecture for fault tolerant multirobot cooperation , 1998, IEEE Trans. Robotics Autom..

[38]  Nathan S. Netanyahu,et al.  PHA*: Finding the Shortest Path with A* in An Unknown Physical Environment , 2011, J. Artif. Intell. Res..

[39]  Deborah M. Gordon,et al.  The expandable network of ant exploration , 1995, Animal Behaviour.

[40]  Alain Hertz,et al.  Ants can colour graphs , 1997 .

[41]  Elon Rimon,et al.  A/sub /spl epsiv//*-DFS: an algorithm for minimizing search effort in sensor based mobile robot navigation , 1998, Proceedings. 1998 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.98CH36146).

[42]  Pradeep K. Khosla,et al.  Mechatronic design of a modular self-reconfiguring robotic system , 2000, Proceedings 2000 ICRA. Millennium Conference. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Symposia Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37065).

[43]  Enrico Pagello,et al.  Cooperative behaviors in multi-robot systems through implicit communication , 1999, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[44]  Rodney A. Brooks,et al.  Elephants don't play chess , 1990, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[45]  Izhak Rubin,et al.  A framework and analysis for cooperative search using UAV swarms , 2004, SAC '04.

[46]  William J. Christmas,et al.  Structural Matching in Computer Vision Using Probabilistic Relaxation , 1995, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[47]  Marios M. Polycarpou,et al.  Cooperative Control for Autonomous Air Vehicles , 2002 .

[48]  Carson C. Chow,et al.  Small Worlds , 2000 .

[49]  Israel A. Wagner,et al.  Efficiently searching a graph by a smell-oriented vertex process , 2004, Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence.

[50]  Israel A. Wagner,et al.  Large Pheromones: A Case Study with Multi-agent Physical A* , 2004, ANTS Workshop.

[51]  Leonidas J. Guibas,et al.  Finding an unpredictable target in a workspace with obstacles , 1997, Proceedings of International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[52]  Marsette Vona,et al.  A physical implementation of the self-reconfiguring crystalline robot , 2000, Proceedings 2000 ICRA. Millennium Conference. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Symposia Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37065).

[53]  Sandip Sen,et al.  Learning to Coordinate without Sharing Information , 1994, AAAI.

[54]  Giulio Sandini,et al.  Self-organizing collection and transport of objects in unpredictable environments , 1990 .

[55]  Richard E. Korf,et al.  Real-Time Heuristic Search , 1990, Artif. Intell..

[56]  Luca Maria Gambardella,et al.  Ant colony system: a cooperative learning approach to the traveling salesman problem , 1997, IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput..

[57]  Kenneth A. De Jong,et al.  Using Genetic Algorithms to Solve NP-Complete Problems , 1989, ICGA.

[58]  James B. H. Kwa,et al.  BS*: An Admissible Bidirectional Staged Heuristic Search Algorithm , 1989, Artif. Intell..

[59]  Paul Scerri,et al.  Coordinating very large groups of wide area search munitions , 2004 .

[60]  Israel A. Wagner,et al.  Swarm robotics for a dynamic cleaning problem , 2005, Proceedings 2005 IEEE Swarm Intelligence Symposium, 2005. SIS 2005..

[61]  Anthony Stentz,et al.  Optimal and efficient path planning for partially-known environments , 1994, Proceedings of the 1994 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[62]  Shin'ichi Yuta,et al.  Consideration on the cooperation of multiple autonomous mobile robots , 1990, EEE International Workshop on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Towards a New Frontier of Applications.

[63]  Maja J. Matarić,et al.  Sold!: Market methods for multi-robot control , 2001 .

[64]  Maja J. Matarić,et al.  Designing emergent behaviors: from local interactions to collective intelligence , 1993 .

[65]  Lynne E. Parker,et al.  Distributed heterogeneous outdoor multi-robot localization , 2002, Proceedings 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.02CH37292).

[66]  Wolfram Burgard,et al.  Collaborative multi-robot exploration , 2000, Proceedings 2000 ICRA. Millennium Conference. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Symposia Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37065).

[67]  S. N. Dorogovtsev,et al.  Evolution of networks , 2001, cond-mat/0106144.

[68]  Tucker R. Balch,et al.  Behavior-based formation control for multirobot teams , 1998, IEEE Trans. Robotics Autom..

[69]  Bruce Randall Donald,et al.  Moving furniture with teams of autonomous robots , 1995, Proceedings 1995 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Human Robot Interaction and Cooperative Robots.

[70]  D. Corneil,et al.  An Efficient Algorithm for Graph Isomorphism , 1970, JACM.

[71]  Birgit Ueberreiter,et al.  Pattern Recognition by Graph Matching - Combinatorial versus continuous Optimization , 1988, Int. J. Pattern Recognit. Artif. Intell..

[72]  Rodney A. Brooks,et al.  A Robust Layered Control Syste For A Mobile Robot , 2022 .

[73]  Yakov Rekhter,et al.  A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4) , 1994, RFC.

[74]  Anthony Stentz,et al.  A Market Approach to Multirobot Coordination , 2001 .

[75]  Kathryn Fraughnaugh,et al.  Introduction to graph theory , 1973, Mathematical Gazette.

[76]  Sandip Sen,et al.  Evolving Beharioral Strategies in Predators and Prey , 1995, Adaption and Learning in Multi-Agent Systems.

[77]  Huosheng Hu,et al.  Coordination in multi-agent RoboCup teams , 2001, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[78]  Anthony Stentz,et al.  Multi-robot exploration controlled by a market economy , 2002, Proceedings 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.02CH37292).

[79]  Yaniv Altshuler,et al.  On the Complexity of Physical Problems and a Swarm Algorithm for k-Clique Search in Physical Graphs , 2005 .

[80]  Sven Koenig,et al.  Terrain coverage with ant robots: a simulation study , 2001, AGENTS '01.

[81]  David S. Johnson,et al.  Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness , 1978 .

[82]  S. Appleby,et al.  Mobile Software Agents for Control in Telecommunications Networks , 2000 .

[83]  Gesine Reinert,et al.  Small worlds , 2001, Random Struct. Algorithms.

[84]  Israel A. Wagner,et al.  ANTS: Agents on Networks, Trees, and Subgraphs , 2000, Future Gener. Comput. Syst..

[85]  Rachid Alami,et al.  Multi-robot cooperation in the MARTHA project , 1998, IEEE Robotics Autom. Mag..

[86]  Alexis Drogoul,et al.  Multi-agent Patrolling: An Empirical Analysis of Alternative Architectures , 2002, MABS.

[87]  Eiji Nakano,et al.  A Control Method of a Multiple Non-holonomic Robot System for Cooperative Object Transportation , 2000, DARS.

[88]  Gheorghe Păun,et al.  Trading Space for Time , 2002 .

[89]  Mark H. Overmars,et al.  Coordinated path planning for multiple robots , 1998, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[90]  Noga Alon,et al.  The Probabilistic Method , 2015, Fundamentals of Ramsey Theory.

[91]  M. Golfarelli,et al.  A Task-Swap Negotiation Protocol Based on the Contract Net Paradigm , 2000 .

[92]  Jing Wang,et al.  Theoretical problems for the realization of distributed robotic systems , 1991, Proceedings. 1991 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[93]  Léon J. M. Rothkrantz,et al.  Ant-Based Load Balancing in Telecommunications Networks , 1996, Adapt. Behav..

[94]  Marco Dorigo,et al.  AntNet: Distributed Stigmergetic Control for Communications Networks , 1998, J. Artif. Intell. Res..

[95]  Albert-László Barabási,et al.  Statistical mechanics of complex networks , 2001, ArXiv.

[96]  Julian R. Ullmann,et al.  An Algorithm for Subgraph Isomorphism , 1976, J. ACM.

[97]  Ronald C. Arkin,et al.  Integrating behavioral, perceptual, and world knowledge in reactive navigation , 1990, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[98]  L. Stone Theory of Optimal Search , 1975 .

[99]  Jun Ota,et al.  Multirobot motion coordination in space and time , 1998, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[100]  Enrico Pagello,et al.  Emergent behaviors of a robot team performing cooperative tasks , 2003, Adv. Robotics.

[101]  M. Benda,et al.  On Optimal Cooperation of Knowledge Sources , 1985 .

[102]  Mark Yim,et al.  PolyBot: a modular reconfigurable robot , 2000, Proceedings 2000 ICRA. Millennium Conference. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Symposia Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37065).

[103]  Gary Scott Malkin RIPng Protocol Applicability Statement , 1997, RFC.

[104]  Luca Maria Gambardella,et al.  HAS-SOP: Hybrid Ant System for the Sequential Ordering Problem , 1997 .

[105]  Toshio Fukuda,et al.  A Dynamically Reconfigurable Robotic System (Concept Of A System And Optimal Configurations) , 1987, Other Conferences.

[106]  Vladimir J. Lumelsky,et al.  Decentralized Motion Planning for Multiple Mobile Robots: The Cocktail Party Model , 1997, Auton. Robots.

[107]  Charles D. Schaper,et al.  Communications, Computation, Control, and Signal Processing: A Tribute to Thomas Kailath , 1997 .

[108]  P. Foggia,et al.  Performance evaluation of the VF graph matching algorithm , 1999, Proceedings 10th International Conference on Image Analysis and Processing.

[109]  Jacques Ferber,et al.  From Tom Thumb to the Dockers: some experiments with foraging robots , 1993 .

[110]  Dominik Henrich,et al.  Space-efficient region filling in raster graphics , 1994, The Visual Computer.

[111]  Oussama Khatib,et al.  Vehicle/arm coordination and multiple mobile manipulator decentralized cooperation , 1996, Proceedings of IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. IROS '96.

[112]  Gang Yu,et al.  Approximation Algorithms for the k-Clique Covering Problem , 1996, SIAM J. Discret. Math..

[113]  S. Levy Artificial life: the quest for a new creation , 1992 .

[114]  Eiichi Yoshida,et al.  Micro Self-Reconfigurable Robotic System using Shape Memory Alloy , 2000, DARS.

[115]  Eli Upfal,et al.  Trading space for time in undirected s-t connectivity , 1989, STOC '89.

[116]  F R Adler,et al.  Information Collection and Spread by Networks of Patrolling Ants , 1992, The American Naturalist.